Tacanay, Glaysa C.

BSED-2A SCIENCE

A Brief Introduction to Physiology

Physiology is the study of normal function within living creatures. It is a sub-section of biology, covering a
range of topics that include organs, anatomy, cells, biological compounds, and how they all interact to make life
possible. From ancient theories to molecular laboratory techniques, physiological research has shaped our
understanding of the components of our body, how they communicate, and how they keep us alive.
Physiology - “A branch of biology that deals with the functions and activities of life or of living matter (such as
organs, tissues, or cells) and of the physical and chemical phenomena involved.”
Fast facts on physiology
Physiology can be considered a study of the functions and processes that create life.
The study of physiology can be traced back to at least 420 BC.
The study of physiology is split into many disciplines covering topics as different as exercise, evolution,
and defense.

History
The study of physiology traces its roots back to ancient India and Egypt. As a medical discipline, it goes
back at least as far as the time of Hippocrates, the famous “father of medicine” – around 420 BC. Hippocrates
coined the theory of the four humors, stating that the body contains four distinct bodily fluids: black bile,
phlegm, blood, and yellow bile. Any disturbance in their ratios, as the theory goes, causes ill health . Claudius
Galenus (c.130-200 AD), also known as Galen, modified Hippocrates’ theory and was the first to use
experimentation to derive information about the systems of the body. He is widely referred to as the founder of
experimental physiology. It was Jean Fernel (1497-1558), a French physician, who first introduced the term
“physiology,” from Ancient Greek, meaning “study of nature, origins.” Fernel was also the first to describe
the spinal canal (the space in the spine where the spinal cord passes through). He has a crater on the moon
named after him for his efforts – it is called Fernelius. Another leap forward in physiological knowledge came
with the publication of William Harvey’s book titled An Anatomical Dissertation Upon the Movement of the
Heart and Blood in Animals in 1628. Harvey was the first to describe systemic circulation and blood’s journey
through the brain and body, propelled by the heart. Perhaps surprisingly, much medical practice was based on
the four humors until well into the 1800s (bloodletting, for instance). In 1838, a shift in thought occurred when
the cell theory of Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann arrived on the scene, theorizing that the body
was made up of tiny individual cells.
From here on in, the field of physiology opened up, and progress was made quickly:
Joseph Lister, 1858 – initially studied coagulation and inflammation following injury, he went on to discover
and utilize lifesaving antiseptics.
Ivan Pavlov, 1891 – conditioned physiological responses in dogs.
August Krogh, 1910 – won the Nobel Prize for discovering how blood flow is regulated in capillaries.
Andrew Huxley and Alan Hodgkin, 1952 – discovered the ionic mechanism by which nerve impulses are
transmitted.
Andrew Huxley and Hugh Huxley, 1954 – made advances in the study of muscles with the discovery of
sliding filaments in skeletal muscle.
Biological systems
The major systems covered in the study of human physiology are as follows:
Circulatory system – including the heart, the blood vessels, properties of the blood, and how
circulation works in sickness and health.
Digestive/excretory system – charting the movement of solids from the mouth to the anus; this
includes study of the spleen, liver, and pancreas, the conversion of food into fuel and its final exit from
the body.
Endocrine system – the study of endocrine hormones that carry signals throughout the organism,
helping it to respond in concert. The principal endocrine glands – the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals,
pancreas, parathyroids, and gonads – are a major focus, but nearly all organs release endocrine
hormones.
Immune system – the body’s natural defense system is comprised of white blood cells, the thymus, and
lymph systems. A complex array of receptors and molecules combine to protect the host from attacks
by pathogens. Molecules such as antibodies and cytokines feature heavily.
Integumentary system – the skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands (secreting an oily or
waxy substance).
Musculoskeletal system – the skeleton and muscles, tendons, ligaments, and cartilage.
Bone marrow – where red blood cells are made – and how bones store calcium and phosphate are
included.
Nervous system – the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous
system. Study of the nervous system includes research into the senses, memory, emotion, movement,
and thought.
Renal/urinary system – including the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra, this system removes water
from the blood, produces urine, and carries away waste.
Reproductive system – consisting of the gonads and the sex organs. Study of this system also includes
investigating the way a fetus is created and nurtured for 9 months.
Respiratory system – consisting of the nose, nasopharynx, trachea, and lungs. This system brings in
oxygen and expels carbon dioxide and water.

Branches

There are a great number of disciplines that use the word physiology in their title. Below are some
examples:
Cell physiology – studying the way cells work and interact; cell physiology mostly concentrates on
membrane transport and neuron transmission.
Systems physiology – this focuses on the computational and mathematical modeling of complex
biological systems. It tries to describe the way individual cells or components of a system converge to
respond as a whole. They often investigate metabolic networks and cell signaling.
Evolutionary physiology – studying the way systems, or parts of systems, have adapted and changed
over multiple generations. Research topics cover a lot of ground including the role of behavior in
evolution, sexual selection, and physiological changes in relation to geographic variation.
Defense physiology – changes that occur as a reaction to a potential threat, such as preparation for the
fight-or-flight response.
Exercise physiology – as the name suggests, this is the study of the physiology of physical exercise.
This includes research into bioenergetics, biochemistry, cardiopulmonary function, biomechanics,
hematology, skeletal muscle physiology, neuroendocrine function, and nervous system function.
 Anatomy: A Brief Introduction
Anatomy is the identification and description of the structures of living things. It is a branch of biology
and medicine. The study of anatomy dates back more than 2,000 yearsTrusted Source, to the Ancient
Greeks.
There are three broad areas:

1. Human Anatomy
2. Animal Anatomy — Zootomy
3. Plant Anatomy — Phytotomy

o Human anatomy is the study of the structures of the human body. An understanding of
anatomy is key to the practice of medicine and other areas of health.
The word “anatomy” comes from the Greek words “ana,” meaning “up,” and “tome,” meaning “a
cutting.” Traditionally, studies of anatomy have involved cutting up, or dissecting, organisms.

Two main approaches: Microscopic Anatomy and Gross, or Macroscopic, Anatomy.

 Gross Anatomy
In medicine, gross, macro, or topographical anatomy refers to the study of the biological structures
that the eye can see. In other words, a person does not need a microscope to see these features. The
study of gross anatomy may involve dissection or noninvasive methods. The aim is to collect data about
the larger structures of organs and organ systems. In dissection, a scientist cuts open an organism, a
plant or the body of a human or another animal and examines what they discover inside.

Endoscopy is a tool for diagnosing illness, but it can also play a role in researchTrusted Source. It
involves a scientist or doctor inserting a long, thin tube with a camera at the end into different parts of
the body. By passing it through the mouth or rectum, for example, they can examine the inside of the
gastrointestinal tract.

11 Organ Systems in the Human Body:

1. Skeletal System
2. Muscular System
3. Lymphatic System
4. Respiratory System
5. Digestive System
6. Nervous System (including the central and autonomic systems)
7. Endocrine system (which regulates hormone production)
8. Cardiovascular System (including the heart)
9. Urinary System
10. reproductive system
11. integumentary system (which includes the skin, hair, and nails, among other areas
 These systems all work together and depend on each other to function.

 Microscopic Anatomy
Microscopic anatomy, also known as histology, is the study of cells and tissues of animals,
humans, and plants. These subjects are too small to see without a microscope.
Histology is vital for the understanding and advancement of medicine, veterinary medicine,
biology, and other aspects of life science.
 History of Anatomy
As Early As Stone Age
Early evidences of the study of anatomy date back as early as the Stone Age. Cave paintings were made
(about 30,000 years ago) depicting simple knowledge of the anatomy of animals. It is assumed that these cave
dwellers utilized some of their anatomical understanding to their own bodies.
Around 5th Century B.C.E
o The systematic study of anatomy was started by Greek scientists Alcmaeon and Empedocles.
Alcmaeon was the first person to perform human body dissection and first to propose that the
brain is the center of intelligence. Empedocles, on the other hand, coined the word “pneuma” to
which he believed is the “life and soul” flowing through the blood vessels.
o Hippocrates was hailed as the “Father of Medicine”. He gathered data and conducted
experiments to show that disease was a natural process. He also showed that the symptoms of a
disease were caused by the natural reactions of the body to the disease process.
o Aristotle was hailed as the “Father of Comparative Anatomy and Physiology”. However,
being more of a philosopher than a physician, he believed that the brain cooled the heart by
secreting “phlegm”, and that the arteries contained only air. Future discoveries debunked this
theory of Aristotle.

During 3rd Century B.C.E

o In Alexandria, Erasistratus and Herophilus made the first scientific studies designed to
discover the workings of human anatomy as they were the first to practice human vivisection or
the dissection of convicted criminals.

During 200 A.D

o Galen’s knowledge about anatomy greatly improved from his experience of by treating
wounded gladiators. His contributions in the field include the discovery that arteries carry liquid
blood rather than gaseous air as formerly thought, identification of the of 7 of the 12 cranial
nerves , evidence that urine is formed in the kidney, not in the bladder, and the successful
removal of cataract from a patient’s eye.
From 8th Century to 14th Century
o The prevailing mood during these periods were not conducive for scientific study and discovery
as it centered much on the Christian principles that God knows best, and so He should – since
He created everything.
During the 15th Century
o Leonardo da Vinci made crude sketches showing various parts of the human body. Such were
sketches of the eye, optic nerves, and the brain. He also made a very close picture of an unborn
baby in the womb with the correct attachment by the umbilical cord.
o This period marked the “rebirth” of an empirical study of anatomy. Andreas Vesalius wrote
the “De humani corporis fabrica” (On the Structure of the Human Body) which challenged
traditional knowledge of human anatomy. This book was the first accurate description of the
interior of the human body.
o Vesalius’ contribution was instrumental in overcoming the authority of the Catholic church. For
the first time, anatomy was viewed objectively and the inaccuracies in some of Galen’s theories
were exposed. Unfortunately, Vesalius’s ideas were originally criticized by scientists and
 anatomists because they challenged Galen’s and others. Because of his contributions, Vesalius
became the “Father of Modern Anatomy“
o William Harvey wrote Exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis et sanguinis in animalibus
(translated as Anatomical Exercises on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals by Dr. A.
Bowie). In this work, he described the circulation of the blood.
Mid-17th Century
o Robert Hooke's Microscope The study of human anatomy vastly improved with the invention of
the compound microscope by Robert Hooke. The viewing of cell structures and physiological
processes were no longer limited to the naked eye.
During the 18th Century
o Gray's Anatomy Dissection became a recognized punishment, a fate worse than death to be
added to hanging for the worst criminals. The dissections performed on hanged bodies were
public. Part of the punishment includes the delivery of the criminal to the surgeons at the
scaffolds before public execution. A public exhibition of the open body will then follow.
o Sir Henry Gray published his book “Anatomy Descriptive and Surgical”, a book that
revealed the depths of human anatomy to the world. At present, his book which is more
commonly known as “Gray’s Anatomy” is still the basis for most medical students.
During the early 19th Century
o Anatomical Theatre The study of anatomy of humans and animals further improved with the
advancement of histology and developmental biology.
The idea of “anatomy theatre” arose. This permitted the observation of dissection performed in
“theatres” by everyone regardless of their gender and class in society.
However, dissection was not allowed to be performed by women, along with the increasing
fessionalization of medicine.
Then comes the 20th Century
o MRI Scan Human Head The further advances in radiological techniques in the twentieth century
have permitted researchers to make remarkable connections between anatomy and physiology.
This also have allowed them to integrate and relate the study of anatomy with other disciplines,
such as genetics, biochemistry, and biophysics.
Going far beyond microscopy and x-rays, the easy access to advanced technology such as PET
and CAT scanners, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) permit physicians and scientists to
have a glimpse of what is inside the body without performing surgery or even dissection.
 PERFORMANCE TASK
Fitness Assessment
Directions: Perform the indicated physical fitness component. Complete the template provided for you
to accomplish by filling the blanks. Answer the processing questions.

Name: Nathaniel Cabanero Tauro

Age: 14 years old

Weight: 55 kg Height: 167.5 cm – 1.675 m

Classification: Normal

Physical Fitness Componets and Tests Score Remarks (AB-Above

Target/BT-Below Target)

3 min. Step Test

(Pulse rate in 10 sec.X6) ____________(bpm)

Curls Ups

Push Ups

Basic Plank
____________ sec.

Shoulder Flex L ____________

R____________

Sit and Reach

____________ cm.
Juggling

Standing Long Jump

____________cm

40 meters Sprint
____________sec