Physiology

Physiology (/ˌfɪziˈɒlədʒi/; from Ancient Greek φύσις (physis) 'nature, origin', and -λογία (-
logia) 'study of'[1]) is the scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a living system.[2][3] As
a sub-discipline of biology, physiology focuses on how organisms, organ systems, individual
organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical and physical functions in a living
system.[4] According to the classes of organisms, the field can be divided into medical
physiology, animal physiology, plant physiology, cell physiology, and comparative physiology.[4]

Oil painting depicting Claude Bernard, the father of modern physiology, with his pupils

Central to physiological functioning are biophysical and biochemical processes, homeostatic

control mechanisms, and communication between cells.[5] Physiological state is the condition of
normal function, while pathological state refers to abnormal conditions, including human
diseases.

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of
Sciences for exceptional scientific achievements in physiology related to the field of medicine.

Foundations

Cells
…
Although there are differences between animal, plant, and microbial cells, the basic
physiological functions of cells can be divided into the processes of cell division, cell signaling,
cell growth, and cell metabolism.

Plants
…
Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of botany concerned with the functioning of plants. Closely
related fields include plant morphology, plant ecology, phytochemistry, cell biology, genetics,
biophysics, and molecular biology. Fundamental processes of plant physiology include
photosynthesis, respiration, plant nutrition, tropisms, nastic movements, photoperiodism,
photomorphogenesis, circadian rhythms, seed germination, dormancy, and stomata function
and transpiration. Absorption of water by roots, production of food in the leaves, and growth of
shoots towards light are examples of plant physiology.[6]

Animals …
Humans
…
Human physiology seeks to understand the mechanisms that work to keep the human body
alive and functioning,[4] through scientific enquiry into the nature of mechanical, physical, and
biochemical functions of humans, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. The
principal level of focus of physiology is at the level of organs and systems within systems. The
endocrine and nervous systems play major roles in the reception and transmission of signals
that integrate function in animals. Homeostasis is a major aspect with regard to such
interactions within plants as well as animals. The biological basis of the study of physiology,
integration refers to the overlap of many functions of the systems of the human body, as well as
its accompanied form. It is achieved through communication that occurs in a variety of ways,
both electrical and chemical.[7]

Changes in physiology can impact the mental functions of individuals. Examples of this would
be the effects of certain medications or toxic levels of substances.[8] Change in behavior as a
result of these substances is often used to assess the health of individuals.[9][10]

Much of the foundation of knowledge in human physiology was provided by animal

experimentation. Due to the frequent connection between form and function, physiology and
anatomy are intrinsically linked and are studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.[11]

Comparative physiology
…
Involving evolutionary physiology and environmental physiology, comparative physiology
considers the diversity of functional characteristics across organisms.[12]

History

The classical era

…
The study of human physiology as a medical field originates in classical Greece, at the time of
Hippocrates (late 5th century BC).[13] Outside of Western tradition, early forms of physiology or
anatomy can be reconstructed as having been present at around the same time in China,[14]
India[15] and elsewhere. Hippocrates incorporated the theory of humorism, which consisted of
four basic substances: earth, water, air and fire. Each substance is known for having a
corresponding humor: black bile, phlegm, blood, and yellow bile, respectively. Hippocrates also
noted some emotional connections to the four humors, on which Galen would later expand. The
critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function
marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece. Like Hippocrates, Aristotle took to the
humoral theory of disease, which also consisted of four primary qualities in life: hot, cold, wet
and dry.[16] Galen (c. 130–200 AD) was the first to use experiments to probe the functions of the
body. Unlike Hippocrates, Galen argued that humoral imbalances can be located in specific
organs, including the entire body.[17] His modification of this theory better equipped doctors to
make more precise diagnoses. Galen also played off of Hippocrates' idea that emotions were
also tied to the humors, and added the notion of temperaments: sanguine corresponds with
blood; phlegmatic is tied to phlegm; yellow bile is connected to choleric; and black bile
corresponds with melancholy. Galen also saw the human body consisting of three connected
systems: the brain and nerves, which are responsible for thoughts and sensations; the heart and
arteries, which give life; and the liver and veins, which can be attributed to nutrition and
growth.[17] Galen was also the founder of experimental physiology.[18] And for the next 1,400
years, Galenic physiology was a powerful and influential tool in medicine.[17]

Early modern period

…
Jean Fernel (1497–1558), a French physician, introduced the term "physiology".[19] Galen, Ibn al-
Nafis, Michael Servetus, Realdo Colombo, Amato Lusitano and William Harvey, are credited as
making important discoveries in the circulation of the blood.[20] Santorio Santorio in 1610s was
the first to use a device to measure the pulse rate (the pulsilogium), and a thermoscope to
measure temperature.[21]

In 1791 Luigi Galvani described the role of electricity in nerves of dissected frogs. In 1811, César
Julien Jean Legallois studied respiration in animal dissection and lesions and found the center
of respiration in the medulla oblongata. In the same year, Charles Bell finished work on what
would later become known as the Bell-Magendie law, which compared functional differences
between dorsal and ventral roots of the spinal cord. In 1824, François Magendie described the
sensory roots and produced the first evidence of the cerebellum's role in equilibration to
complete the Bell-Magendie law.

In the 1820s, the French physiologist Henri Milne-Edwards introduced the notion of physiological
division of labor, which allowed to "compare and study living things as if they were machines
created by the industry of man." Inspired in the work of Adam Smith, Milne-Edwards wrote that
the "body of all living beings, whether animal or plant, resembles a factory ... where the organs,
comparable to workers, work incessantly to produce the phenomena that constitute the life of
the individual." In more differentiated organisms, the functional labor could be apportioned
between different instruments or systems (called by him as appareils).[22]

In 1858, Joseph Lister studied the cause of blood coagulation and inflammation that resulted
after previous injuries and surgical wounds. He later discovered and implemented antiseptics in
the operating room, and as a result, decreased death rate from surgery by a substantial
amount.[23]

The Physiological Society was founded in London in 1876 as a dining club.[24] The American
Physiological Society (APS) is a nonprofit organization that was founded in 1887. The Society is,
"devoted to fostering education, scientific research, and dissemination of information in the
physiological sciences."[25]
In 1891, Ivan Pavlov performed research on "conditional responses" that involved dogs' saliva
production in response to a bell and visual stimuli.[23]

In the 19th century, physiological knowledge began to accumulate at a rapid rate, in particular
with the 1838 appearance of the Cell theory of Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann.[26] It
radically stated that organisms are made up of units called cells. Claude Bernard's (1813–1878)
further discoveries ultimately led to his concept of milieu interieur (internal environment),[27][28]
which would later be taken up and championed as "homeostasis" by American physiologist
Walter B. Cannon in 1929. By homeostasis, Cannon meant "the maintenance of steady states in
the body and the physiological processes through which they are regulated."[29] In other words,
the body's ability to regulate its internal environment. William Beaumont was the first American
to utilize the practical application of physiology.

Nineteenth-century physiologists such as Michael Foster, Max Verworn, and Alfred Binet, based
on Haeckel's ideas, elaborated what came to be called "general physiology", a unified science of
life based on the cell actions,[22] later renamed in the 20th century as cell biology.[30]

Late modern period

…
In the 20th century, biologists became interested in how organisms other than human beings
function, eventually spawning the fields of comparative physiology and ecophysiology.[31] Major
figures in these fields include Knut Schmidt-Nielsen and George Bartholomew. Most recently,
evolutionary physiology has become a distinct subdiscipline.[32]

In 1920, August Krogh won the Nobel Prize for discovering how, in capillaries, blood flow is
regulated.[23]

In 1954, Andrew Huxley and Hugh Huxley, alongside their research team, discovered the sliding
filaments in skeletal muscle, known today as the sliding filament theory.[23]

Recently, there have been intense debates about the vitality of physiology as a discipline (Is it
dead or alive?).[33][34] If physiology is perhaps less visible nowadays than during the golden age
of the 19th century,[35] it is in large part because the field has given birth to some of the most
active domains of today's biological sciences, such as neuroscience, endocrinology, and
immunology.[36] Furthermore, physiology is still often seen as an integrative discipline, which can
put together into a coherent framework data coming from various different domains.[34][37][38]

Notable physiologists
Women in physiology
…
Initially, women were largely excluded from official involvement in any physiological society. The
American Physiological Society, for example, was founded in 1887 and included only men in its
ranks.[39] In 1902, the American Physiological Society elected Ida Hyde as the first female
member of the society.[40] Hyde, a representative of the American Association of University
Women and a global advocate for gender equality in education,[41] attempted to promote gender
equality in every aspect of science and medicine.

Soon thereafter, in 1913, J.S. Haldane proposed that women be allowed to formally join The
Physiological Society, which had been founded in 1876.[42] On 3 July 1915, six women were
officially admitted: Florence Buchanan, Winifred Cullis, Ruth C. Skelton, Sarah C. M. Sowton,
Constance Leetham Terry, and Enid M. Tribe.[43] The centenary of the election of women was
celebrated in 2015 with the publication of the book "Women Physiologists: Centenary
Celebrations And Beyond For The Physiological Society." (ISBN 978-0-9933410-0-7)

Prominent women physiologists include:

Bodil Schmidt-Nielsen, the first woman president of the American Physiological Society in
1975.[44]

Gerty Cori,[45] along with husband Carl Cori, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
in 1947 for their discovery of the phosphate-containing form of glucose known as glycogen,
as well as its function within eukaryotic metabolic mechanisms for energy production.
Moreover, they discovered the Cori cycle, also known as the Lactic acid cycle,[46] which
describes how muscle tissue converts glycogen into lactic acid via lactic acid fermentation.

Barbara McClintock was rewarded the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the
discovery of genetic transposition. McClintock is the only female recipient who has won an
unshared Nobel Prize.[47]

Gertrude Elion,[48] along with George Hitchings and Sir James Black, received the Nobel Prize
for Physiology or Medicine in 1988 for their development of drugs employed in the treatment
of several major diseases, such as leukemia, some autoimmune disorders, gout, malaria, and
viral herpes.

Linda B. Buck,[49] along with Richard Axel, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
in 2004 for their discovery of odorant receptors and the complex organization of the olfactory
system.
 Françoise Barré-Sinoussi,[50] along with Luc Montagnier, received the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine in 2008 for their work on the identification of the Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), the cause of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS).

Elizabeth Blackburn,[51] along with Carol W. Greider[52] and Jack W. Szostak, was awarded the
2009 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of the genetic composition and
function of telomeres and the enzyme called telomerase.

Subdisciplines

There are many ways to categorize the subdisciplines of physiology:[53]

based on the taxa studied: human physiology, animal physiology, plant physiology, microbial
physiology, viral physiology

based on the level of organization: cell physiology, molecular physiology, systems physiology,
organismal physiology, ecological physiology, integrative physiology

based on the process that causes physiological variation: developmental physiology,

environmental physiology, evolutionary physiology

based on the ultimate goals of the research: applied physiology (e.g., medical physiology),
non-applied (e.g., comparative physiology)

Physiological societies

Transnational physiological societies include:

American Physiological Society

International Union of Physiological Sciences

The Physiological Society

National physiological societies include:

Brazilian Society of Physiology

See also

Outline of physiology  Biology portal

Biochemistry
Biophysics

Cytoarchitecture

Defense physiology

Ecophysiology

Exercise physiology

Fish physiology

Insect physiology

Human body

Molecular biology

Metabolome

Neurophysiology

Pathophysiology

Pharmacology

Physiome

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Bibliography

Human physiology

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2012.

Animal physiology

Hill, R.W., Wyse, G.A., Anderson, M. Animal Physiology, 3rd ed. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland,
2012.

Moyes, C.D., Schulte, P.M. Principles of Animal Physiology, second edition. Pearson/Benjamin
Cummings. Boston, MA, 2008.

Randall, D., Burggren, W., and French, K. Eckert Animal Physiology: Mechanism and Adaptation,
5th Edition. W.H. Freeman and Company, 2002.

Schmidt-Nielsen, K. Animal Physiology: Adaptation and Environment. Cambridge & New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1997.

Withers, P.C. Comparative animal physiology. Saunders College Publishing, New York, 1992.

Plant physiology

Larcher, W. Physiological plant ecology (4th ed.). Springer, 2001.

Salisbury, F.B, Ross, C.W. Plant physiology. Brooks/Cole Pub Co., 1992

Taiz, L., Zieger, E. Plant Physiology (5th ed.), Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer, 2010.

Fungal physiology

Griffin, D.H. Fungal Physiology, Second Edition. Wiley-Liss, New York, 1994.

Protistan physiology

Levandowsky, M. Physiological Adaptations of Protists. In: Cell physiology sourcebook:

essentials of membrane biophysics. Amsterdam; Boston: Elsevier/AP, 2012.

Levandowski, M., Hutner, S.H. (eds). Biochemistry and physiology of protozoa. Volumes 1, 2,
and 3. Academic Press: New York, NY, 1979; 2nd ed.

Laybourn-Parry J. A Functional Biology of Free-Living Protozoa. Berkeley, California: University

of California Press; 1984.

Algal physiology
 Lobban, C.S., Harrison, P.J. Seaweed ecology and physiology. Cambridge University Press,
1997.

Stewart, W. D. P. (ed.). Algal Physiology and Biochemistry. Blackwell Scientific Publications,

Oxford, 1974.

Bacterial physiology

El-Sharoud, W. (ed.). Bacterial Physiology: A Molecular Approach. Springer-Verlag, Berlin-

Heidelberg, 2008.

Kim, B.H., Gadd, M.G. Bacterial Physiology and Metabolism. Cambridge, 2008.

Moat, A.G., Foster, J.W., Spector, M.P. Microbial Physiology, 4th ed. Wiley-Liss, Inc. New York,
NY, 2002.

External links

Look up physiology in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikisource has original works on the topic: Physiology

physiologyINFO.org (https://web.archive.org/web/20100202075617/http://www.physiologyinf
o.org/) public information site sponsored by The American Physiological Society

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