Human physiology

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Human physiology is the science of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of
humans in good health, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. Physiology
focuses principally at the level of organs and systems. Most aspects of human physiology are
closely homologous to corresponding aspects of animal physiology, and animal experimentation
has provided much of the foundation of physiological knowledge. Anatomy and physiology are
closely related fields of study: anatomy, the study of form, and physiology, the study of function,
are intrinsically tied and are studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.

Contents
[hide]

 1 Integration, communication and Homeostasis

 2 Systems
 3 See also
 4 External links

[edit] Integration, communication and Homeostasis

The biological basis of the study of physiology, integration refers to the overlap of many
functions of the systems of the human body, as well as its accompanied form. It is achieved
through communication which occurs in a variety of ways, both electrical and chemical.

In terms of the human body, the nerves play major roles in the reception and transmission of
signals which integrate function.

[edit] Systems
Traditionally, the academic discipline of physiology views the body as a collection of interacting
systems, each with its own combination of functions and purposes.

System Clinical study Physiology

The nervous system consists of the
central nervous system (which is the brain
and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous
system. The brain is the organ of thought,
emotion, and sensory processing, and
neuroscience, neurology neurophysiology
(disease), psychiatry
(behavioral),
ophthalmology (vision),
otolaryngology (hearing,
serves many aspects of communication
and control of various other systems and
functions. The special senses consist of
taste, smell)
vision, hearing, taste, and smell. The eyes,
ears, tongue, and nose gather information
about the body's environment.
The musculoskeletal system consists of
the human skeleton (which includes bones,
ligaments, tendons, and cartilage) and
attached muscles. It gives the body basic
osteology (skeleton), cell physiology,
structure and the ability for movement. In
orthopedics (bone musculoskeletal
addition to their structural role, the larger
disorders) physiology
bones in the body contain bone marrow,
the site of production of blood cells. Also,
all bones are major storage sites for
calcium and phosphate.
The circulatory system consists of the
heart and blood vessels (arteries, veins,
capillaries). The heart propels the
circulation of the blood, which serves as a
"transportation system" to transfer oxygen,
fuel, nutrients, waste products, immune
cardiology (heart), cardiovascular
cells, and signalling molecules (i.e.,
hematology (blood) physiology
hormones) from one part of the body to
another. The blood consists of fluid that
carries cells in the circulation, including
some that move from tissue to blood
vessels and back, as well as the spleen and
bone marrow.
The respiratory system consists of the
nose, nasopharynx, trachea, and lungs. It respiratory
pulmonology.
brings oxygen from the air and excretes physiology
carbon dioxide and water back into the air.
The gastrointestinal system consists of
the mouth, esophagus, stomach, gut (small
and large intestines), and rectum, as well
as the liver, pancreas, gallbladder, and
gastrointestinal
salivary glands. It converts food into gastroenterology
physiology
small, nutritional, non-toxic molecules for
distribution by the circulation to all tissues
of the body, and excretes the unused
residue.
The integumentary system consists of the dermatology cell physiology,
covering of the body (the skin), including skin physiology
hair and nails as well as other functionally
important structures such as the sweat
 glands and sebaceous glands. The skin
provides containment, structure, and
protection for other organs, but it also
serves as a major sensory interface with
the outside world.
The urinary system consists of the
kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. It
nephrology (function),
removes water from the blood to produce
urology (structural renal physiology
urine, which carries a variety of waste
disease)
molecules and excess ions and water out
of the body.
The reproductive system consists of the
gonads and the internal and external sex gynecology (women),
organs. The reproductive system produces andrology (men),
reproductive
gametes in each sex, a mechanism for their sexology (behavioral
physiology
combination, and a nurturing environment aspects) embryology
for the first 9 months of development of (developmental aspects)
the offspring.
The immune system consists of the white
blood cells, the thymus, lymph nodes and
lymph channels, which are also part of the
lymphatic system. The immune system
provides a mechanism for the body to
immunology immunology
distinguish its own cells and tissues from
alien cells and substances and to neutralize
or destroy the latter by using specialized
proteins such as antibodies, cytokines, and
toll-like receptors, among many others.
The endocrine system consists of the
principal endocrine glands: the pituitary,
thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, parathyroids,
and gonads, but nearly all organs and
tissues produce specific endocrine
endocrinology endocrinology
hormones as well. The endocrine
hormones serve as signals from one body
system to another regarding an enormous
array of conditions, and resulting in
variety of changes of function.

The traditional divisions by system are somewhat arbitrary. Many body parts participate in more
than one system, and systems might be organized by function, by embryological origin, or other
categorizations. In particular, is the "neuroendocrine system", the complex interactions of the
neurological and endocrinological systems which together regulate physiology. Furthermore,
many aspects of physiology are not as easily included in the traditional organ system categories.

The study of how physiology is altered in disease is pathophysiology.

Physiology
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This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the
talk page.

 Its references would be clearer with a different or consistent style of citation,

footnoting or external linking. Tagged since October 2009.
 It needs additional references or sources for verification. Tagged since October
2009.

Physiology is the science of the function of living systems. It is a subcategory of biology. In

physiology, the scientific method is applied to determine how organisms, organ systems, organs,
cells and biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical function that they have in a living
system. The word physiology is from Ancient Greek: φύσις, physis, "nature, origin"; and -λογία,
-logia, "study of".

Contents
[hide]

 1 Human physiology
 2 History
 3 Schools
 4 Honors and awards
 5 See also
 6 References
 7 External links

[edit] Human physiology

Main article: Human physiology

Human physiology is the science of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of
humans in good health, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. The principal
level of focus of physiology is at the level of organs and systems within systems. Much of the
foundation of knowledge in human physiology was provided by animal experimentation.[citation
needed]
Physiology is closely related to anatomy; anatomy is the study of form, and physiology is
the study of function. Due to the frequent connection between form and function physiology and
anatomy are intrinsically linked and are studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.

[edit] History
Human physiology dates back to at least 420 B.C. and the time of Hippocrates,[1] the father of
medicine. The critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between
structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece, while Claudius
Galenus (c. 126-199 A.D.), known as Galen, was the first to use experiments to probe the
function of the body. Galen was the founder of experimental physiology.[2] The ancient Indian
books of Ayurveda, the Sushruta Samhita and Charaka Samhita, also had descriptions on human
anatomy and physiology. The medical world moved on from Galenism only with the appearance
of Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey.[3]

During the Middle Ages, the ancient Greek and Indian medical traditions were further developed
by Muslim physicians, most notably Avicenna (980-1037), who introduced experimentation and
quantification into the study of physiology in The Canon of Medicine. Many of the ancient
physiological doctrines were eventually discredited by Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288), who was the
first physician to correctly describe the anatomy of the heart, the coronary circulation, the
structure of the lungs, and the pulmonary circulation, for which he is considered the father of
circulatory physiology.[4][verification needed] He was also the first to describe the relationship between
the lungs and the aeration of the blood, the cause of pulsation,[5] and an early concept of capillary
circulation.[6][verification needed]

Following from the Middle Ages, the Renaissance brought an increase of physiological research
in the Western world that triggered the modern study of anatomy and physiology. Andreas
Vesalius was an author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani
corporis fabrica.[7] Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy.[8]
Anatomist William Harvey described the circulatory system in the 17th century,[9] demonstrating
the fruitful combination of close observations and careful experiments to learn about the
functions of the body, which was fundamental to the development of experimental physiology.
Herman Boerhaave is sometimes referred to as a father of physiology due to his exemplary
teaching in Leiden and textbook Institutiones medicae (1708).[citation needed]

In the 18th century, important works in this field were by Pierre Cabanis, a french doctor and
physiologist.[citation needed]

In the 19th century, physiological knowledge began to accumulate at a rapid rate, particularly
with the 1838 appearance of the Cell theory of Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. It
radically stated that organisms are made up of units called cells. Claude Bernard's (1813–1878)
further discoveries ultimately led to his concept of milieu interieur (internal environment), which
would later be taken up and championed as "homeostasis" by American physiologist Walter
Cannon (1871–1945).[clarification needed]
In the 20th century, biologists also became interested in how organisms other than human beings
function, eventually spawning the fields of comparative physiology and ecophysiology.[10] Major
figures in these fields include Knut Schmidt-Nielsen and George Bartholomew. Most recently,
evolutionary physiology has become a distinct subdiscipline.[11]

The biological basis of the study of physiology, integration refers to the overlap of many
functions of the systems of the human body, as well as its accompanied form. It is achieved
through communication which occurs in a variety of ways, both electrical and chemical.

In terms of the human body, the endocrine and nervous systems play major roles in the reception
and transmission of signals which integrate function. Homeostasis is a major aspect with regards
to the interactions within an organism, humans included.

[edit] Schools
There is an abundance of different universities that allow students to major in physiology.[12][13] It
is considered one of the fastest growing majors for undergraduate students[citation needed].

[edit] Honors and awards

The highest honor awarded in physiology is the Nobel Prize in Physiology, awarded since 1901
by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

Human anatomy
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It has been suggested that Body systems be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)
The skeleton

The nervous system

The muscles

The internal organs and their contents

Human anatomy (gr. ἀνατομία, "dissection", from ἀνά, "up", and τέμνειν, "cut"), which, with
human physiology and biochemistry, is a complementary basic medical science, is primarily the
scientific study of the morphology of the human body.[1] Anatomy is subdivided into gross
anatomy and microscopic anatomy.[1] Gross anatomy (also called topographical anatomy,
regional anatomy, or anthropotomy) is the study of anatomical structures that can be seen by
unaided vision.[1] Microscopic anatomy is the study of minute anatomical structures assisted with
microscopes, which includes histology (the study of the organization of tissues),[1] and cytology
(the study of cells). Anatomy, physiology (the study of function) and biochemistry (the study of
the chemistry of living structures) are complementary basic medical sciences when applied to the
human body. As such, these subjects are usually taught together (or in tandem) to students in the
medical sciences.

In some of its facets human anatomy is closely related to embryology, comparative anatomy and
comparative embryology,[1] through common roots in evolution; for example, much of the human
body maintains the ancient segmental pattern that is present in all vertebrates with basic units
being repeated, which is particularly obvious in the vertebral column and in the ribcage, and can
be traced from very early embryos.

The human body consists of biological systems, that consist of organs, that consist of tissues, that
consist of cells and connective tissue.

The history of anatomy has been characterized, over a long period of time, by a continually
developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body. Methods have
also advanced dramatically, advancing from examination of animals through dissection of
preserved cadavers (dead human bodies) to technologically complex techniques developed in the
20th century.

Contents
[hide]

 1 Study
 2 Anatomy in arts
 3 Approaches
o 3.1 Regional groups
o 3.2 Internal organs (by region)
o 3.3 Major organ systems
o 3.4 Superficial anatomy
 4 See also
 5 References
 6 External links

[edit] Study
Generally, physicians, dentists, physiotherapists, nurses, paramedics, radiographers, and students
of certain biological sciences, learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from anatomical
models, skeletons, textbooks, diagrams, photographs, lectures, and tutorials. The study of
microscopic anatomy (or histology) can be aided by practical experience examining histological
preparations (or slides) under a microscope; and in addition, medical and dental students
generally also learn anatomy with practical experience of dissection and inspection of cadavers
(dead human bodies). A thorough working knowledge of anatomy is required for all medical
doctors, especially surgeons, and doctors working in some diagnostic specialities, such as
histopathology and radiology.

Human anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry are basic medical sciences, which are generally
taught to medical students in their first year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught
regionally or systemically;[1] that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the
head and chest, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems. The
major anatomy textbook, Gray's Anatomy, has recently been reorganized from a systems format
to a regional format,[2][3] in line with modern teaching.

[edit] Anatomy in arts

Gross anatomy has become a key part of visual arts. Basic concepts of how muscles and bones
function and deform with movement is key to drawing, painting or animating a human figure.
Many books such as "Human Anatomy for Artists: The Elements of Form", are written as a
guide to drawing the human body anatomically correct.[4] Leonardo da Vinci, in attempts to
improve his art via a better understanding of human anatomy expanded both fields.

[edit] Approaches
[edit] Regional groups

 Head and neck – includes everything above the thoracic inlet.

 Upper limb – includes the hand, wrist, forearm, elbow, arm, and shoulder.
 Thorax – the region of the chest from the thoracic inlet to the thoracic diaphragm.
 Human abdomen to the pelvic brim or to the pelvic inlet.
 The back – the spine and its components, the vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx, and intervertebral
disks.
 Pelvis and Perineum – the pelvis consists of everything from the pelvic inlet to the pelvic
diaphragm. The perineum is the region between the sex organs and the anus.
 Lower limb – everything below the inguinal ligament, including the hip, the thigh, the knee, the
leg, the ankle, and the foot.

[edit] Internal organs (by region)

Head and neck

 Brain
o Amygdala
o Basal ganglia
 o Brain stem
 medulla
 midbrain
 pons
o Cerebellum
o Cerebral cortex
o Hypothalamus
o Limbic system

 Eye
 Pituitary
 Thyroid and Parathyroids

Thorax

 Heart
 Lung
 Esophagus
 Thymus

Abdomen and pelvis (both sexes)

 Adrenals
 Appendix
 Bladder
 Gallbladder
 Large intestine
 Small intestine
 Kidney
 Liver
 Pancreas
 Spleen
 Stomach

Male pelvis

 Prostate
 Testes

Female pelvis

 Ovaries
 Uterus
[edit] Major organ systems

 Circulatory system: pumping and channeling blood to and from the body and lungs with heart,
blood, and blood vessels.
 Digestive System: digestion and processing food with salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, liver,
gallbladder, pancreas, intestines, rectum, and anus.
 Endocannabinoid system: neuromodulatory lipids and receptors involved in a variety of
physiological processes including appetite, pain-sensation, mood, motor learning, synaptic
plasticity, and memory.
 Endocrine system: communication within the body using hormones made by endocrine glands
such as the hypothalamus, pituitary or pituitary gland, pineal body or pineal gland, thyroid,
parathyroids, and adrenals or adrenal glands
 Integumentary system: skin, hair and nails
 Immune system: the system that fights off disease; composed of leukocytes, tonsils, adenoids,
thymus, and spleen.
 Lymphatic system: structures involved in the transfer of lymph between tissues and the blood
stream, the lymph and the nodes and vessels that transport it.
 Musculoskeletal system: muscles provide movement and a skeleton provides structural support
and protection with bones, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons.
 Nervous system: collecting, transferring and processing information with brain, spinal cord,
peripheral nerves, and nerves
 Reproductive system: the sex organs; in the female; ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina,
mammary glands, and in the male; testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, and penis.
 Respiratory system: the organs used for breathing, the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs,
and diaphragm.
 Urinary system: kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra involved in fluid balance, electrolyte
balance and excretion of urine.
 Vestibular system: contributes to our balance and our sense of spatial orientation.

[edit] Superficial anatomy

Superficial anatomy of female and male human body

Surface projections of the major organs of the trunk, using the vertebral column and rib cage as main
reference points of superficial anatomy

Superficial anatomy or surface anatomy is important in human anatomy being the study of
anatomical landmarks that can be readily identified from the contours or other reference points
on the surface of the body.[1] With knowledge of superficial anatomy, physicians gauge the
position and anatomy of the associated deeper structures.

Common names of well known parts of the human body, from top to bottom:

 Head  – Forehead  – Jaw  – Cheek  – Chin

 Neck – Shoulder
 Arm  – Elbow  – Wrist  – Hand  – Finger  – Thumb
 Spine  – Chest  – Thorax
 Abdomen  – Groin
 Hip  – Buttocks  – Leg  – Thigh  – Knee  – Calf  – Heel  – Ankle  – Foot  – Toe
 Eye, ear, nose, mouth, teeth, tongue, throat, adam's apple, breast, penis, scrotum, clitoris,
vulva, navel are also superficial structures.