INTRODUCTION TO SKELETAL SYSTEM UNIT-7

Introduction
The adult skeletal system consist of many bone(about 206 bones). The study of bones is called osteology while
the study of joint is known as syndesmology. The term muscular system refer to all the muscle of the body which
are concerned mainly with the movement of the body in general. Therefore the musculoskeletal system consists
of the bones, joints and muscles.

Function of skeletal system

1. Support:-The skeleton is the framework of the body, it supports the softer tissues and provides points of
attachment for most skeletal muscles.
2. Protection:-The skeleton provides mechanical protection for many of the body's internal organs, reducing
risk of injury to them.
For example, cranial bones protect the brain, vertebrae protect the spinal cord, and the ribcage protects the
heart and lungs.
3. Assisting in Movement:-Skeletal muscles are attached to bones, therefore when the associated muscles
contract they cause bones to move.
4. Storage of Minerals:-Bone tissues store several minerals, including calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P). When
required, bone releases minerals into the blood - facilitating the balance of minerals in the body.
5. Production of Blood Cells:-The bone marrow inside some larger bones , produced blood cells .
6. Storage of Chemical Energy:-With increasing age some bone marrow changes from 'red bone marrow' to
'yellow bone marrow'.
Yellow bone marrow consists mainly of adipose cells(cells composed of fats), and a few blood cells. It is an
important chemical energy reserve.
OR
• Support:- The skeletal system’s primary function is to form a solid framework that supports and protects the
body's organs and anchors the skeletal muscles. The bones of the appendicular skeleton provide support and
flexibility at .
• Protection:-The bones of the axial skeleton act as a hard shell to protect the internal organs—such as
the brain and the heart—from damage caused by external forces.
• Movement:-The bones of the skeletal system act as attachment points for the skeletal muscles of the body.
Almost every skeletal muscle works by pulling two or more bones either closer together or further apart.
Joints act as pivot points for the movement of the bones. The regions of each bone where muscles attach to
the bone grow larger and stronger to support the additional force of the muscle.
• Hematopoiesis:-Red bone marrow produces red and white blood cells in a process known as hematopoiesis.
Red bone marrow is found in the hollow space inside of bones known as the medullary cavity. Children tend
to have more red bone marrow compared to their body size than adults do, due to their body’s constant
growth and development. The amount of red bone marrow drops off at the end of puberty, replaced by yellow
bone marrow.
• Storage:-The skeletal system stores many different types of essential substances to facilitate growth and
repair of the body. The skeletal system’s cell matrix acts as our calcium bank by storing and releasing
calcium ions into the blood as needed. Proper levels of calcium ions in the blood are essential to the proper
function of the nervous and muscular systems. Bone cells also release osteocalcin (a hormone that helps

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regulate blood sugar and fat deposition). The yellow bone marrow inside of our hollow long bones is used to
store energy in the form of lipids. Finally, red bone marrow stores some iron in the form of the molecule
ferritin and uses this iron to form hemoglobin in red blood cells.

Bone
• Bone:-A bone is a rigid organ that constitutes part of the vertebral skeleton. Bones support and protect the
various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells, store minerals and also enable mobility. Bone
tissue is a type of dense connective tissue. Bones come in a variety of shapes and sizes and have a complex
internal and external structure. They are lightweight yet strong and hard, and serve multiple functions.
• In the human body at birth, there are over 270 bones, but many of these fuse together during development,
leaving a total of 206 separate bones in the adult. The largest bone in the body is the thigh-bone (femur) and
the smallest is the stapes in the middle ear.

Joint
 A joint or articulation (or articular surface) is the connection made between bones in the body which link
the skeletal system into a functional whole. They are constructed to allow for different degrees and types of
movement. Some joints, such as the knee, elbow, and shoulder, are self-lubricating, almost frictionless, and
are able to withstand compression and maintain heavy loads while still executing smooth and precise
movements. Other joints such as sutures between the bones of the skull permit very little movement (only
during birth) in order to protect the brain and the sense organs.

Composition of bone
The bone is composed of
• Intracellular calcified materials,
• The bone matrix:- The bone matrix is composed of water(20%), Organic matrials(30-40%)and inorganic
matrials(40-50%).Organic matrials (produced as a result of the human body)  include collagen,
proteoglycans, proteins, cytokines and growth factors.Inorganic material include hyddroxyapatite crystals,
calcium, phosporous, bicarbonate, citrare, magnesium, potassium, and sodium. The association of
hyddroxyapatite with collagen fiber is responsible for the hardness and resistance that are characteristic
of bone. It is highly vascular tissue.It has greter regenerative power than any other tissue of body , except
blood.

Three types of cell :-Osteocytes, osteoblasts and osteoclasts.

• Osteoblasts :-(A cell from which bone develops, bone forming cell )are the cells that form new bone.
They also come from the bone marrow and are related to structural cells. They have only one nucleus.
Osteoblasts work in teams to build bone. They produce new bone called "osteoid" which is made of bone
collagen and other protein. Then they control calcium and mineral deposition. They are found on the
surface of the new bone. These old osteoblasts are also called LINING CELLS. They regulate passage of
calcium into and out of the bone, and they respond to hormones by making special proteins that activate
the osteoclasts.

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• Osteocytes:-(Mature bone cells)are cells inside the bone. They also come from osteoblasts. Some of the
osteoblasts turn into osteocytes while the new bone is being formed, and the osteocytes then get
surrounded by new bone. They are not isolated, however, because they send out long branches that
connect to the other osteocytes. These cells can sense pressures or cracks in the bone and help to direct
where osteoclasts will dissolve the bone.
• Osteoclasts:-(Cell that functions in the breakdown and resorption of bone tissue)They are large cells that
dissolve the bone. They come from the bone marrow and are related to white blood cells. They are formed
from two or more cells that fuse together, so the osteoclasts usually have more than one nucleus. They are
found on the surface of the bone mineral next to the dissolving bone.(Bone resorption is the process by
which osteoclasts break down bone and release the minerals, resulting in a transfer of calcium from bone
fluid to the blood.)

The Four Layers of Bone :- Bones are made of four

main layers.
• Periosteum
• Cortical, or Hard Bone
• Cancellous, or Spongy Bone
• Bone Marrow •

Bone Marrow
• Gelatinous tissue found in the inner spaces of bone.
• Function
– primary function of hematopoiesis
– controls the inner diameter of bone
• Types of bone marrow
– red marrow- hematopoietic tissue  – yellow marrow - fatty tissue 
– composition – composition
» 40% water » 15% water
» 40% fat » 80% fat
» 20% protein » 5% protein

Red Bone Marrow

• Location
– most commonly found in flat bones
• ribs, ilium, sternum, vertebrae, skull 
• epiphysis/metaphysis of long bone (children only)
• Function
– contains mesenchymal stem cells and hematopoietic stem cells
– red marrow slowly changes to yellow marrow with age.

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Yellow Bone Marrow
• Location
– most commonly found in diaphysis or shaft of long bones
• femur, humerus, tibia
• Function
– contains mostly fat cells
– may revert to red bone marrow if there is an increased demand for red blood cells (e.g. trauma)

Development of bone
The formation of bone is called ossification or osteogenesis. During the fetal stage of development this occurs by
two processes, 
 Intramembranous ossification and 
 Endochondral ossification
Intramembranous ossification involves the creation of bone from connective tissue, whereas in the
process of endochondral ossification bone is created from cartilage.

Intramembranous ossification:- Intramembranous ossification mainly occurs during formation of the flat bones
of the skull but also the mandible, maxilla, and clavicles; the bone is formed from connective tissue such
as mesenchyme (embryonic tissue which develops into connective and skeletal tissues, including blood and
lymph)  tissue rather than from cartilage. The steps in intramembranous ossification are:
• Development of ossification center
• Calcification
• Formation of trabeculae (group of partitions formed by bands or columns of connective tissue, especially
a plate of the calcareous tissue forming cancellous bone.)
• Development of periosteum (Periosteum  is a membrane that covers the outer surface of all bones, except
at the joints of long bones.

Endochondral ossification:- Endochondral ossification, on the other hand, occurs in long bones and most of the
rest of the bones in the body; it involves an initial hyaline cartilage that continues to grow. The steps in
endochondral ossification are:
• Development of cartilage model • Development of the secondary ossification
• Growth of cartilage model center
• Development of the primary ossification • Formation of articular cartilage
center and epiphyseal plate
Endochondral ossification begins with points in the parts of irregular bones. Secondary ossification
cartilage called "primary ossification centers." They occurs after birth, and forms the epiphysis of long
mostly appear during fetal development, a few short bones and the extremities of irregular and flat bones.
bones begin their primary ossification after birth. The diaphysis and both epiphyses of a long bone are
They are responsible for the formation of the separated by a growing zone of cartilage
diaphysis of long bones, short bones and certain (the epiphyseal plate). When the child reaches

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skeletal maturity (18 to 25 years of age), all of the
cartilage is replaced by bone, fusing the diaphysis
and both epiphysis together (epiphyseal closure).

Suture and fontanelles:-

Suture
• Cranial sutures are fibrous bands of tissue that connect the bones of the skull. The skull of a newborn
consists of five main bones: two frontal bones, two parietal bones, and one occipital bone. These are joined
by fibrous sutures, which allow movement that facilitates childbirth and brain growth.
• The four major suture are present in the human
skull
 The coronal suture(Frontal bone to parietal
bone)
 The sagittal suture(Two parietal bone to each
other)
 The lamboidal suture(Parietal bones to
occcipital bone)
 The squamous suture(Parietal bones to the
temporal bones)

Fontanelles:-
• A fontanelle (soft spot) is an anatomical feature of the infant human skull comprising any of the soft
membranous  gaps (sutures) between the cranial bones. Fontanelles are soft spots on a baby's head which,
during birth, enable the bony plates of the skull to flex, allowing the child's head to pass through the birth
canal.
• Anterior fontanelles • mastoid fontanelle  
• posterior fontanelles • sphenoidal fontanelle 
Anterior fontanelle is a diamond-shaped membrane-filled space located between the two frontal and two parietal
bones of the developing fetal skull. It persists until approximately 18 months after birth. It is at the junction of
the coronal suture and sagittal suture. The fetal anterior fontanel may be palpated until 18 months.
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Posterior fontanelle is triangle-shaped. It lies at the junction between the sagittal suture and lambdoid suture. At
birth, the skull features a small posterior fontanelle with an open area covered by a tough membrane, where the
two parietal bones adjoin the occipital bone.
• Two smaller fontanelles are located on each side of the head, more anteriorly the sphenoidal or anterolateral
fontanelle (between the sphenoid, parietal, temporal, and frontal bones) and more posteriorly the mastoid or
posterolateral fontanelle (between the temporal, occipital, and parietal bones).

Closure:-In humans, the sequence of fontanelle closure is as follows

• The posterior fontanelle generally closes 8-12 weeks after birth;
• The sphenoidal fontanelle is the next to close around 6 months after birth;
• The mastoid fontanelle closes next from 6 to 18 months after birth; and
• The anterior fontanelle is generally the last to close between 12-18 months.

Classification of bones:-
 Bones are classified in various way:-
A. According to ossification or process of bone development:-
i. Membranous:- These are also known as dermal bones and the process by which they ossify is called
intra-membranous ossification. These bones ossify from mesenchymal condensations in the intrauterine
life. Examples are bones of the skull and facial bones.
ii. Cartilaginous :-These bones ossify from a cartilage model and this type of ossification is known as intra-
cartilaginous ossification. These bones do not form from mesenchymal condensations but from preformed
cartilage models. Examples of this type of bones include bones of limbs, vertebral column and thoracic
cage.
iii. Sesamoid :- These are not like the other types of bones because they are in the form of nodules embedded
in tendons and joint capsules. They do not possess any periosteum and their ossification also takes place
after birth. Examples of this type of bones are patella, pisiform (wrist bone).

B. According to position(classification of skeletal:- Axial/Appendicular)

 The axial skeleton runs along the body’s midline axis and is made up of 80 bones in the following
regions:

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 Skull
Cranium 8
Face 14
 Vertebral column 33 80
Ribs 24
Sternum 1
 The appendicular skeleton is made up of 126 bones in the folowing regions:
 Upper limbs 60
 Lower limbs 60
 Pelvic girdle 2 126
 Pectoral (shoulder) girdle 4

C. According to shape
i. Long bone iv. Irregular bone
ii. Short bone v. Sesamoid bone
iii. Flat bone vi. Pneumatic bone
• Long.  Long bones are longer than they are wide and are the major bones of the limbs. Long bones grow more
than the other classes of bone throughout childhood and so are responsible for the bulk of our height as adults.
A hollow medullary cavity is found in the center of long bones and serves as a storage area for bone marrow.
Examples of long bones include the femur, tibia, fibula, metatarsals, and phalanges.
• Short.  Short bones are about as long as they are wide and are often cubed or round in shape. The carpal bones
of the wrist and the tarsal bones of the foot are examples of short bones.
• Flat.  Flat bones vary greatly in size and shape, but have the common feature of being very thin in one
direction. Because they are thin, flat bones do not have a medullary cavity like the long bones. The frontal,
parietal, and occipital bones of the cranium—along with the ribs and hip bones—are all examples of flat
bones.
• Irregular. Irregular bones have a shape that does not fit the pattern of the long, short, or flat bones. The
vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx of the spine—as well as the sphenoid, ethmoid, and zygomatic bones of the
skull are all irregular bones.
• Sesamoid. The sesamoid bones are formed after birth inside of tendons that run across joints. Sesamoid bones
grow to protect the tendon from stresses and strains at the joint and can help to give a mechanical advantage
to muscles pulling on the tendon. The patella and the pisiform bone of the carpals are the only sesamoid
bones that are counted as part of the 206 bones of the body.
• Pneumatic bones can also be categorized under the irregular bones because they are also irregular in shape
but since there is a difference between the two that is characteristically very important therefore they are often
classified separately. The characteristic difference is the presence of large air spaces in these bones which
make them light in weight and thus they form the major portion of skull in the form of sphenoid, ethmoid and
maxilla. Besides making the skull light in weight they also help in resonance of sound and as air conditioning
chambers for the inspired air.

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D. According to observation
i. Macroscopically ii. Microscopically
• Compact bone (cortical) • Lamellar bone
• Cancellous bone(Spongy) • Fibrous bone
• Dentine
• cement
• Compact (also known as "cortical") tissue forms the outer shell of bones . It makes up about 80% of the
body bone mass. It consists of a very hard mass but it is extremely porous . It is made of a large number
of parallel tube shape units called osteons (Haversian systems). Each of which is made of a central canal .
The central canal contains, nerves, lymphatics and blood vessels, and each central canal is linked with
neighbouring canal by tunnel running at right angle between them, called perforating canal . The series
cylindrical plate of bone arranged each central canal are called lamellae. Between the adjacent lamellae of
the osteon are strings of little cavities are called lacunae. Lacunae communicate with each other through a
series of tiny channels called canaliculi , which allows the circulation of interstitial fluid through the bone.

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 Cancellous (also known as "spongy") tissue is located beneath the compact bone and consists of a
meshwork of bony bars (trabeculae) which consist of a few lamellae and osteocytes interconnected by
canaliculi . The space between the trabeculae cotain red bone marrow . In additional , spongy bone is
lighter than compact bone reduced the weight of the skeleton.
Microscopically, the haversian canals are much larger than in compact bone and there are fewer lamellae,
giving a honeycomb appearance.
It is found at the end of long and short bones. This is an adaptation to compressive forces.

Microscopically
• Lamellar bone/Mature bone:
The type of bone which are composed of thin
plates (lamellae) of bony tissue. Most mature
human bones are lamellar bones.
• Fibrous bone/Immature bones:
These have cells and more fibers in them. In
humans they are found only in fetus, sockets
of alveolar bones , suture of the skull.
• Dentin is a calcified tissue of the body, and
along with enamel, cementum, and pulp is
one of the four major components of teeth.
• Cementum is a specialized calcified
substance covering the root of a tooth. 

E. According to the site of development

• Somatic:- Development in the body wall. Eg:-Bones of limbs and trunk.
• Visceral:- Developed from brachial arch. Eg:- Mandible , Hyoid bone.

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• Branchial arch, also called Visceral Arch, or Gill Arch,  one of the bony or cartilaginous curved bars on
either side of the pharynx (throat) that support the gills of fishes and amphibians; In the human embryo,
the branchial arches give rise to such structures as the mandible, hyoid bone, and larynx.

The axial skeleton

The skull
The skull is composed of 22 bones that are fused together except for the mandible. These 21 fused bones are
separate in children to allow the skull and brain to grow, but fuse to give added strength and protection as an
adult. The mandible remains as a movable jaw bone and forms the only movable joint in the skull with
the temporal bone.
• The cranium:-The bones of the superior portion of the skull are known as the cranium and protect the
brain from damage.
• The face:-The bones of the inferior and anterior portion of the skull are known as facial bones and support
the eyes, nose, and mouth.
The cranium
• The cranium is the uppermost part of the skeleton. It is formed by a number of flat irregular bones that
provide a bony protection for the brain.
The bones of cranium are:-
Frontal bones - 1 Parietal bones - 2
Temporal bones - 2 Occipital bones - 1
Sphenoid bones- 1 Ethmoid bones - 1

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The face
• Most of the facial bones skeleton is formed by 14 bones. The main bones of face are:-
Zygomatic or -2 Maxilla)-1
(cheek bones) (Originated as 2)
Nasal bones-2 Lacrimal bones-2
Vomer-1 Palatine bones-2
Inferior concha-2 Mandible :- 2

Vertebrae
The vertebral column forms the skeleton of the back and main part of the skeleton .It consist of 33 bone
called vertebrae. They are named by region:
 Cervical (neck) - 7 vertebrae
 Thoracic (chest) - 12 vertebrae
 Lumbar (lower back) - 5 vertebrae
 Sacrum - 5 fused bones
 Coccyx (tailbone) – 4 fused bone

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Thoracic cage
The thoracic cage is formed by 12 thoracic vertebra, 12 pairs of ribs, Costal cartilage and sternum.
The sternum, or breastbone, is a thin, knife-shaped bone located along the midline of the anterior side of
the thoracic region of the skeleton. The sternum connects to the ribs by thin bands of cartilage called the costal
cartilage
and 10 all connect to the sternum through cartilage
There are 12 pairs of ribs that together with the that is connected to the cartilage of the seventh rib,
sternum form the ribcage of the thoracic region. The so we consider these to be “false ribs.” Ribs 11 and
first seven ribs are known as “true ribs” because they 12 are also false ribs, but are also considered to be
connect the thoracic vertebrae directly to the sternum “floating ribs” because they do not have any
through their own band of costal cartilage. Ribs 8, 9, cartilage attachment to the sternum at all.

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The appendicular skeleton

 The appendicular skeleton is made up of 126 bones . It consist of

Pectoral (shoulder) girdle
The upper limbs
Lower limbs
Pelvic girdle,
Pectoral (shoulder) girdle
• The axial skeleton and consists of the left and
right clavicles and left and right scapulae.

Upper limb (arm) bones

The  upper limb (arm) bones  consist of :-
- 1 humerus - 8 carpal bone
- 1 radius - 5 metacarpals
- 1 ulna - 14 phalanges
• The humerus is the bone of the upper arm. It forms the ball and socket joint of the shoulder with the scapula
and forms the elbow joint with the lower arm bones. The radius and ulna are the two bones of the forearm.
The ulna is on the medial side of the forearm and forms a hinge joint with the humerus at the elbow. The
radius allows the forearm and hand to turn over at the wrist joint.

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• The lower arm bones form the wrist joint with the carpals, a group of eight small bones that give added
flexibility to the wrist. The carpals are connected to the five metacarpals that form the bones of the hand and
connect to each of the fingers. Each finger has three bones known as phalanges, except for the thumb, which
only has two phalanges.

Pelvic girdle
• Formed by the left and right hip bones, the pelvic girdle connects the lower limb (leg) bones to the axial
skeleton.

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Lower limbs
• The femur is the largest bone in the body and the only bone of the thigh (femoral) region. The femur forms
the ball and socket hip joint with the hip bone and forms the knee joint with the tibia and patella. Commonly
called the kneecap, the patella is special because it is one of the few bones that are not present at birth. The
patella forms in early childhood to support the knee for walking and crawling.

• The tibia and fibula are the bones of the lower leg. The tibia is much larger than the fibula and bears almost
all of the body’s weight. The fibula is mainly a muscle attachment point and is used to help maintain balance.
The tibia and fibula form the ankle joint with the talus, one of the seven tarsal bones in the foot.
• The tarsals are a group of seven small bones that form the posterior end of the foot and heel. The tarsals form
joints with the five long metatarsals of the foot. Then each of the metatarsals forms a joint with one of the set
of phalanges in the toes. Each toe has three phalanges, except for the big toe, which only has two phalange

Long bone
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• The long bones of the body contain many distinct regions due to the way in which they develop. At birth,
each long bone is made of three individual bones separated by hyaline cartilage. Each end bone is called
an epiphysis while the middle bone is called a diaphysis. The epiphyses and diaphysis grow towards one
another and eventually fuse into one bone. The region of growth and eventual fusion in between the epiphysis
and diaphysis is called the metaphysis. Once the long bone parts have fused together, the only hyaline
cartilage left in the bone is found as articular cartilage on the ends of the bone that form joints with other
bones. The articular cartilage acts as a shock absorber and gliding surface between the bones to facilitate
movement at the joint.
• Looking at a bone in cross section, there are several distinct layered regions that make up a bone. The outside
of a bone is covered in a thin layer of dense irregular connective tissue called the periosteum. The periosteum
contains many strong collagen fibers that are used to firmly anchor tendons and muscles to the bone for
movement. Stem cells and osteoblast cells in the periosteum are involved in the growth and repair of the
outside of the bone due to stress and injury. Blood vessels present in the periosteum provide energy to the
cells on the surface of the bone and penetrate into the bone itself to nourish the cells inside of the bone. The
periosteum also contains nervous tissue and many nerve endings to give bone its sensitivity to pain when
injured.
• Deep to the periosteum is the compact bone that makes up the hard, mineralized portion of the bone. Compact
bone is made of a matrix of hard mineral salts reinforced with tough collagen fibers. Many tiny cells called
osteocytes live in small spaces in the matrix and help to maintain the strength and integrity of the compact
bone.
• Deep to the compact bone layer is a region of spongy bone where the bone tissue grows in thin columns
called trabeculae with spaces for red bone marrow in between. The trabeculae grow in a specific pattern to
resist outside stresses with the least amount of mass possible, keeping bones light but strong. Long bones
have a spongy bone on their ends but have a hollow medullary cavity in the middle of the diaphysis. The
medullary cavity contains red bone marrow during childhood, eventually turning into yellow bone marrow
after puberty.

Diagram illustrating the Structure of

Long Bones

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Fig :- Diagram illustrating the Structure of Long Bones

The basic components of a typical long bone:

• articulartory (also known as 'articular') • compact bone;
cartilage; • periosteum;
• spongy bone; • medullary cavity, and
• bone marrow; • a blood vessel (indicating blood supply and
• endosteum; circulation within bones).
The Functions of Components of Long Bone:
• Articulatory (or articular) cartilagereduces friction and absorbs shock at freely moveable joints.
• Endosteum is the membrane that lines the cavity of a bones.
• Periosteum is a tough fibrous membrane that surrounds the outside of bones wherever they are not covered
by articulatory cartilage.
• In adults the medullary cavity contains fatty yellow bone marrow.

Types and function of joints:-Fixed/cartilaginous/synivial

The point at which two or more bones meet(junction between two bone) is called a
joint or articulation. Joints are responsible for movement (e.g., the movement of limbs) and stability (e.g.,the
stability found in the bones of the skull).
There are more joint in a child than in adult because as the growth proceeds, some of these
bones fuse together, eg the ilium sacrum and pubis bone to form the pelvic bone ,the two halves of the infant
frontal bone , the infant mandible , the five sacrum vertebrae and four coccygeal vertebrae.
The study of joint is called Arthrology.Arthritis is inflammation of jointa and Arthroscopy is the examination of
their interior. There are two ways to classify joints:
i) On the basis of their structure or
ii) On the basis of their function.
iii) Regional classification
The structural classification divides joints into three types depending on the material composing the joint and the
presence or absence of a cavity in the joint.
a) fibrous,
b) cartilaginous and
c) synovial joints
The functional classification divides joints into three categories:
a. synarthroses,

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b. amphiarthroses, and
c. diarthroses.
Regional Classification
a. Skull type:- Immovable joint
b. Vertebral type:- Slightly movable joint
c. Limb joint:- Freely movable joint.

• Synarthrosis joints include fibrous joints; amphiarthrosis joints include cartilaginous joints; diarthrosis
joints include synovial joints.
• Diarthrosis:- A joint that can move freely in various planes.
• Amphiarthrosis:- Slightly movable joint in which the surfaces of bones are connected by ligaments or
cartilage.
• Synarthrosis :-Immovable joint in which two bones are connected rigidly by fibrous tissue

Fibrous Joints
• The bones of fibrous joints are held together by fibrous connective tissue. There is no cavity, or space,
present between the bones, so most fibrous joints do not move at all. There are three types of fibrous
joints: sutures, syndesmoses, and gomphoses. Fibrous joints classified as synarthroses, or immovable,
include: sutures, gomphoses, and synchondroses.
• Sutures are found only in the skull and possess short fibers of connective tissue that hold the skull bones
tightly in place .
• Syndesmoses are joints in which the bones are connected by a band of connective tissue, allowing for
more movement than in a suture. An example of a syndesmosis is the joint of the tibia and fibula in the
ankle.
The amount of movement in these types of joints is determined by the length of the
connective tissue fibers.
• Gomphoses occur between teeth and their sockets; the term refers to the way the tooth fits into the socket
like a peg . The tooth is connected to the socket by a connective tissue called the periodontal ligament.

Cartilaginous Joints
• Cartilaginous joints are those in which the are two types of cartilaginous joints:
bones are connected by cartilage. Here a synchondroses and symphyses.
little amount of movement is possible.There
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 INTRODUCTION TO SKELETAL SYSTEM UNIT-7
• In a synchondrosis or Primary movement I possible. Symphyses are found
cartilaginous joint or Hyline cartilage at the joints between vertebrae and between
joint, the bones are joined by hyaline the pubic bones.
cartilage which is temporary in nature and is
replaced completely by bone. So they are
permit slightly bending movement in early of
life . They also permit growth in the length of
a bone.Synchondroses are found in the
epiphyseal plates of growing bones in
children and joint between rib and costal
cartilage.
• In symphyses or Secondry cartilaginous
joint or Fibro cartilage joint, hyaline
cartilage covers the end of the bone, but the
connection between bones occurs through
fibrocartilage. Usually permit a little

Synovial Joints
• Synovial joints are the only joints that have a space between the adjoining bones . This space, referred to
as the synovial (or joint) cavity, is filled with synovial fluid. Synovial fluid lubricates the joint, reducing
friction between the bones and allowing for greater movement. The ends of the bones are covered with
articular cartilage, a hyaline cartilage. The entire joint is surrounded by an articular capsule composed of
connective tissue. This allows movement of the joint as well as resistance to dislocation. Articular
capsules may also possess ligaments that hold the bones together. Knees, elbows, and shoulders are
examples of synovial joints. Since they allow for free movement, synovial joints are classified as
diarthroses. The movement possible at synovial joints are:- flexion, extension, abduction, adduction,
circumdation, rotation, pronation , supination, inversion and eversion .

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The synovial joint also classified in various
subtypes according to the range of movement
possible or the shape of the articulation part of
the bones involved.
• Plane synovial joints
• Hinge joints
• Pivot joint
• Condyloid joint
• Saddle joint
• Ball and socket joint

 Plane synovial joints:- Planar joints have

bones with articulating surfaces that are flat
or slightly curved. These joints allow for
gliding or sliding movements; therefore, the
joints are sometimes referred to as gliding
joints. The range of motion is limited and
does not involve rotation. Planar joints are
found in the carpal bones in the hand and the
tarsal bones of the foot, as well as between
vertebrae .
• Hinge joints ;-Hinge joints act like the hinge hinge joint. The knee is sometimes classified
of a door; the slightly-rounded end of one as a modified hinge joint .
bone fits into the slightly-hollow end of the
other bone; one bone remains stationary.
In hinge joints, the slightly-rounded end of
one bone fits into the slightly-hollow end of
the other bone. In this way, one bone moves
while the other remains stationary, similar to
the hinge of a door. The elbow joint,
interphalangeal joint and is an example of a
• Pivot Joints:- Pivot joints consist of the bone moves around its own axis. An example
rounded end of one bone fitting into a ring of a pivot joint is the joint of the first and
formed by the other bone. This structure second vertebrae of the neck that allows the
allows rotational movement, as the rounded head to move back and forth . The joint of
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 INTRODUCTION TO SKELETAL SYSTEM UNIT-7
the wrist that allows the palm of the hand to
be turned up and down is also a pivot joint.

• Condyloid Joints:- Condyloid joints consist

of an oval-shaped end of one bone fitting into
a similarly oval-shaped hollow of another
bone. This is also sometimes called an
ellipsoidal joint. This type of joint allows
angular movement along two axes, as seen in
the joints of the wrist and fingers , which can
move both side to side and up and down.

• Saddle Joints:- Each bone in a saddle joint

resembles a saddle, with concave and convex
portions that fit together. Saddle joints allow
angular movements similar to condyloid
joints, but with a greater range of motion. An
example of a saddle joint is the thumb joint,
which can move back and forth and up and
down; it can move more freely than the wrist
or fingers .
• Ball-and-Socket Joints:- Ball-and-socket joints possess a rounded, ball-like end of one bone fitting into a
cup-like socket of another bone. This organization allows the greatest range of motion, as all movement
types are possible in all directions. Examples of ball-and-socket joints are the shoulder and hip joints .

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Synovial Joints - Characteristics

• The following are characteristic of synovial joints:
• Articular Cartilage or hyline cartilage - This covers the ends of bones that articulate with each other. This
cartilage has no nerve and blood vessels. It consists of hyaline cartilage lubricated with synovial fluid like.
It is very slick and smooth (like ice on ice) to reduce friction in the joint. It is strong enough to bear the
weight of the body.
• Articular capsule:- The articular capsule develops the articulation or joint .It consists of two part: a fibrous
capsule(capsular ligament) and Synovial membrane Lining - This structure secretes synovial fluid which
lubricates and nourishes the joint. (Syn=like, ovial=egg-white)
• Exctracapsular structure :- More joints have ligaments that blend with the capsule and provide additional
stability.
• Muscle and movement:- Muscle or their tendons stretch the joints they move . When the muscle contract
it shortens, pulling one bone towards other.
• Nerve and blood vessels:- Nerve and blood vessels crossing a joint usually supply the muscle that move it
and the joint structures.

Mechanism of joint movement and its relation to the principle lever.

• A lever  is a machine consisting of a beam or rigid rod pivoted at a fixed hinge, or fulcrum. A lever is a
rigid body capable of rotating on a point on itself. It is one of the six simple machines identified by
Renaissance scientists.
•  A lever amplifies an input force to provide a greater output force, which is said to provide leverage. The
ratio of the output force to the input force is the mechanical advantage of the lever
• The ideal lever does not dissipate or store energy, which means there is no friction in the hinge or bending
in the beam. In this case, the power into the lever equals the power out, and the ratio of output to input

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 INTRODUCTION TO SKELETAL SYSTEM UNIT-7
force is given by the ratio of the distances from the fulcrum to the points of application of these forces.
This is known as the law of the lever.

• Levers are classified by the relative positions of the fulcrum, effort and resistance (or load). It is common
to call the input force the effort and the output force the load or the resistance. This allows the
identification of three classes of levers by the relative locations of the fulcrum, the resistance and the
effort.
• Class 1: Fulcrum in the middle: the effort is applied on one side of the fulcrum and the resistance (or
load)on the other side, for example,  pair of scissors. Mechanical advantage may be greater or less than 1.
• Class 2: Resistance(or load) in the middle: the effort is applied on one side of the resistance and the
fulcrum is located on the other side, for example, a nutcracker, a bottle opener . Mechanical advantage is
always greater than 1.
• Class 3: Effort in the middle: the resistance(or load) is on one side of the effort and the fulcrum is located
on the other side, for example, a pair of tweezers or the human mandible. Mechanical advantage is always
less than 1.

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Types /structure/Function of teeth

:-Temporary/permanent

• Dentin  or dentine  is a calcified tissue of the

body, and along with enamel, cementum,
and pulp is one of the four major components
of teeth.
• It is usually covered by enamel on the crown
and cementum on the root and surrounds the
entire pulp.
• By weight, 70% of dentin consists of the
mineral ,
20% is organic material, and
10% is water.  

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• They begin the digestive process by breaking
down food; they protect the oral cavity; they aid
in proper speech; and they affect physical
appearance. 
• There are several types of teeth, and each
performs its own special function in the chewing
process, depending on its size, shape and
location within the jaws. 
• Starting at the midline, the permanent dentition
is comprised of incisors, canines, premolars and
molars.  The primary dentition is the same except
• In addition to aiding in acquiring and chewing it has no premolars
food, teeth perform several other important
functions within the oral cavity. 
• The four front teeth in each arch are called incisors, and their function is to cut food with their sharp thin
edges.  On each side of the incisors, at the corners of the mouth, are the canines.  These teeth have one cusp,
or pointed edge, and are used for holding or grasping food, and are very strong, stable teeth.
• Behind the canines are the premolars, which are designed for holding food like the canines because they have
cusps, but they also function to crush food.  Sometimes these teeth are referred to as bicuspids, meaning two
cusps, but this is not always accurate because some premolars may have three cusps.
• Therefore the term premolar is preferred.  The teeth farthest back in the mouth are the molars.  These teeth
have broad chewing surfaces with four or five cusps, and are designed for grinding food. 
• The incisors and canines are called anterior teeth, because they are located in the front of the mouth, while
the premolars and molars are called posterior teeth because they are located in the back of the mouth.

• Incisors:- There are four incisors in each arch.  Two central incisors and two lateral incisors.
Location – the central incisors are side by side at the midline.  There is a lateral incisor on each side of the
central incisors.
Shape – single rooted, crowns are arched and angle toward one sharp incisal edge.
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Function – to cut or incise food with their thin edges.

• Canines:-There are two canines in each arch.  They are sometimes referred to as cuspids.
Location – next to the lateral incisors, establishes the cornering of the arches.
Shape – anchored with the longest root, one pointed cusp.
Function – used for holding, grasping, and tearing food. Referred to as the cornerstone of the mouth.

• Premolars:- There are for premolars in each arch.  Two first premolars and two second premolars.  They
are sometimes referred to as bicuspids.  There are no premolars in the primary dentition.
Location – first premolars are next to the canines followed by the second premolars.
Shape – maxillary first premolars have a bifurcated root, all others have one root, one prominent cusp with
one or two lesser lingual cusps.
Function – holding food, like canines because they have cusps; also to crush food.

• Molars:- There are three molars in each arch of the permanent dentition.  Two first molars, two second
molars and two third molars.  Third molars are sometimes called wisdom teeth.  There are two molars in
each arch of the primary dentition.  Two first molars and two second molars.
Location – first molars are next to the second premolars, second molars next to the first molars and third
molars next to the second molars.  The third molars are the farthest teeth in the mouth.
Shape – bifurcated or trifurcated roots, broad chewing surfaces with four to five cusps.
Function – grinding food.

Types of sinuses:-Frontal/sphenoid/ethmoid/maxillary

• Paranasal sinuses are a group of four paired

air-filled spaces that surround the nasal
cavity. The maxillary sinuses are located
under the eyes; thefrontal sinuses are above
the eyes; the ethmoidal sinuses are between
the eyes and the sphenoidal sinuses are
behind the eyes. The sinuses are named for
the facial bones in which they are located.

Postural Deformities
1. Kyphosis:- Excessive outward curvature of the spine, causing hunching of the back.
2. Lordosis:- Inward curvature of the spine.
Some lordosis in the lumbar and cervical regions of the spine is normal.
Exaggerated lordosis may occur in adolescence - possibly as a result of faulty posture, or due to disease
affecting the vertebrae and spinal muscles.

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3. Scoliosis:- Lateral (sideways) deviation of the spine.
Scoliosis may be caused by congenital or acquired abnormalities of the vertebrae, muscles, and/or nerves.
Treatment may involve the use of spinal braces and, in cases of severe deformity. surgical correction by
fusion or osteotomy.

Disorders :-Osteoporosis, Rickets, Osteomalasia, Osteomylitis , Piget’s disease, Tumors of bone, Arthritis,
Carpel turnel syndrome.

Osteoporosis
• Osteoporosis is characterized by reduced a • Medical management:-Adequate, balance
bones mass, deterioration of bone matrix and diet rich in calcium and vitamin D . Regular
diminished bone architectural strength. The weight bearing exercise .
rate of bone resorption is greater than the rate
of bone formation. The bone become
progressively porous and fragile from loss of
tissue and they fracture easily. Osteoporosis
becomes more common with age
• Risk factors include inadequate nutrition,
hormonal changes(post menopausal women),
or deficiency of calcium or vitamin D,
lifestyle(smoking, caffeine intake, and
alcohol consumption)and genetics.

Osteomalasia absorption or excessive loss of calcium and

• Osteomalasia is a metabolic bone disease
characterized by inadequate mineralization of
bone. The primary defect is a deficiency in
activated vitamin D, Which promotes
calcium absorption from the GI tract and
facilitates mineralization of bone.
Osteomalasia may result from failed calcium
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loss of vitamin D .
• Additional risk factor include severe renal
insufficiency, medication, malnutririon, and
inadiquate sunlight exposure.
• Diet modification, Vitamin D and calcium
supplements, sunlight exposure , medication
are are usually prescribed.
 INTRODUCTION TO SKELETAL SYSTEM UNIT-7
Osteomylitis
• Osteomyelitis is infection and inflammation of the bone or bone marrow. It may occur by extension of
soft tissue infection, direct bone contamination(eg:- bone surgery, gunshot wound) or
hematogenous(bloodborne)spread from foci of infection. In children, the long bones are usually affected.
• In adults, the vertebrae and the pelvis are
most commonly affected. Staphylococcus
aureus is the organism most commonly cause
of osteomyelitis. Gram positive(Streptococci
, enterococci), Gram negative (pseudomonas
species). Patient at risk include poorly
nourished, elderly, and patient who are
obese; immpaired immune systems, chronic
illness, long term use of corticosteroid
therapy or immunosuprresive therapy.
• General supportive measure(eg hydration,
diet high in vitamins and protein),affected
area is immobilized, antibiotics and surgical.

Rickets
• Rickets is a skeletal disorder that results from a lack of vitamin D, calcium, or phosphate. These nutrients
are important for the development of strong, healthy bones. A vitamin D deficiency makes it difficult for
body to maintain sufficient levels of calcium and phosphate and lack these minerals, they become weak
and soft.
• Vitamin D helps the body absorb calcium and phosphate from the intestines. We can get vitamin D from
various food products, including milk, eggs, and fish and also produces the vitamin when we’re exposed
to sunlight.
• Rickets is most common in children who are between 6 and 36 months old. Children are at the highest
risk of rickets because they are still growing. Children might not get enough vitamin D if they live in a
region with little sunlight, follow a vegetarian diet, or don’t drink milk products. In some cases, the
condition is hereditary.
Symptoms of rickets include: • Treatment for rickets focuses on replacing
• pain or tenderness in the bones of the arms, the missing vitamin or mineral in the body,
legs, pelvis, or spine increase exposure to sunlight, if possible.
• stunted growth and short stature They will also encourage them to consume
• bone fractures food products high in vitamin D, such as fish,
• muscle cramps liver, milk, and eggs and need braces to
• teeth deformities, position their bones correctly as they grow .
• skeletal deformities

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Piget’s disease
• Paget's disease is a disorder that involves abnormal bone destruction and regrowth. This results in
deformity of the affected bones.
• The affected bone may only be in one or two areas of the skeleton, or throughout the body. It more often
involves bones of the arms, collarbones, leg, pelvis, spine, and skull.
 symptoms may include:
• Bone pain, joint pain or stiffness, and neck • In general, patients with Paget's disease
pain (the pain may be severe and present should receive 1000–1500 mg of calcium,
most of the time) adequate sunshine and at least 400 units of
• Bowing of the legs and other visible vitamin D daily.
deformities • Exercise is very important in maintaining
• Enlarged head and skull deformities skeletal health, avoiding weight gain, and
• Fracture maintaining joint mobility. 
• Headache
• Hearing loss
• Reduced height
• Warm skin over the affected bone
• Not all people with Paget’s disease need to
be treated. Patients who may not need
treatment include those who:
• Only have abnormal blood tests
• Have no symptoms and no evidence of active
disease

Tumors of bone
• When cells divide abnormally and uncontrollably, they can form a mass or lump of tissue. This lump is
called a tumor. Bone tumors form in your bones. As the tumor grows, abnormal tissue can displace
healthy tissue.
• Some tumors are benign, meaning they aren’t cancerous, While benign bone tumors won’t spread to other
parts of the body. Other tumors are malignant, meaning they’re cancerous. Malignant bone tumors can
cause cancer to spread throughout the body.
• The cause of bone tumors isn’t known. The tumors often occur when parts of the body are growing
rapidly. A few possible causes are genetics, radiation treatment, and injuries to the bones.
• Surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy are the main strategies for treating cancer.

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Arthritis
• Arthritis is a form of joint disorder that involves inflammation in one or more joints. There are over 100
different forms of arthritis. arthritis forms are rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, and
related autoimmune diseases. Septic arthritis is caused by joint infection. The major complaint by
individuals who have arthritis is joint pain. Pain is often constant, and may be localized to the joint
affected. The pain from arthritis is due to inflammation that occurs around the joint, damage to the joint
from disease, daily wear and tear of joint, muscle strains caused by forceful movements against stiff
painful joints and fatigue.
• Treatment options vary depending on the type of arthritis and include physical therapy, lifestyle changes
(including exercise and weight control), orthopedic bracing, and medications. Joint replacement
surgery may be required in eroding forms of arthritis. Medications can help reduce inflammation in the
joint which decreases pain. Moreover, by decreasing inflammation, the joint damage may be slowed.

Carpel turnel syndrome.

• Carpal tunnel syndrome is numbness, tingling, weakness, and other problems in your hand because of
pressure on the median nerve in wrist. It may be caused by continual repetitive movements or by fluid
retention.
• The median nerve and several tendons run from forearm to hand through a small space in wrist called the
carpal tunnel . The median nerve controls movement and feeling  in thumb and first three fingers (not
little finger). Symptoms most often occur in the thumb, index finger, middle finger, and half of the ring
finger.
• Many things can cause this swelling, including:
• Illnesses such as hypothyroidism, rheumatoid arthritis and diabetes.
• Making the same hand movements over and over, especially if the wrist is bent down (your hands lower
than your wrists), or making the same wrist movements over and over.
• Pregnancy.

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Fracture
• A fracture is breakage of a bone, this breakage may be complete or incomplete.
Types of Fractures (and their causes)
1. Simple:-A clean break of the bone with little or no break in the overlying skin.
2. Greenstick:- An incomplete break of the bone in which part of the outer shell (cortex) remains intact. 
This occurs particularly in children, who have more flexible bones than adults.
3. Compound (also known as "Open"):- A broken bone that pierces the overlying skin.
4. Cominuted:- A fracture in which the bone is broken into more than two pieces.
A crushing force is usually responsible and there is extensive injury to surrounding soft tissues is
common.
5. Impacted:- A fracture in which the bones involved are driven into each other.
6. Complicated:- A broken bone that also involves damage to other organs - in addition to broken bone(s) and
possibly also broken skin. An example is a broken rib that punctures a lung.

Important questions
 Define skeletal system and Explain the major functions skeletal system.
 Write the types and functions of the bones.
 Explain the development of bone.
 Define lever and explain the third class of lever and its application in human body.
 Define joints and explain the types of synovial joints.

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 Describe in various types joints and relate it with third class of lever.
 Explain the types and composition of bone.
 Explain Suture and fontanel's with its type.
 Define teeth and explain Types and Function of teeth.
 Draw a well label diagram of Long bone and explain component and functions of Long bone.
 Define Fracture. Explain the types of fracture.
 Short notes:-
 Suture and fontanelles.
 Sinuses
 Postural Deformities
 Osteoporosis
 Rickets
 Osteomalasia
 Osteomylitis
 Piget’s disease
 Tumors of bone
 Arthritis
 Carpel turnel syndrome

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