CURRENT

ELECTRICITY - I
1. Electric Current
2. Conventional Current
3. Drift Velocity of electrons and current
4. Current Density
5. Ohm’s Law
6. Resistance, Resistivity, Conductance & Conductivity
7. Temperature dependence of resistance
8. Colour Codes for Carbon Resistors
9. Series and Parallel combination of resistors
10. EMF and Potential Difference of a cell
11. Internal Resistance of a cell
12. Series and Parallel combination of cells
Electric Current:
The electric current is defined as the charge flowing
through any section of the conductor in one second.
I=q/t (if the rate of flow of charge is steady)
I = dq / dt (if the rate of flow of charge varies with
time)
Different types of
current:
I b c
a) Steady current which does not a
vary with time
b) & c) Varying current whose
magnitude varies with d
time 0
t
d) Alternating current whose
magnitude varies continuously
and direction changes
periodically
 Conventional Current:
Conventional current is the current + -
+ + + + -
whose direction is along the direction
of the motion of positive charge under + -
+ I -
the action of electric field.
-
Conventional current due to motion of - - - - +
electrons is in the direction opposite - +
to that of motion of electrons. +
I
-
Drift Velocity and Current: +
Drift velocity is defined as the velocity
with which the free electrons get l
drifted towards the positive terminal
under the effect of the applied electric
field.
A vd - - - E
vd = a τ vd = - (eE / m) I = neA vd I
τ
Current is directly
proportional to drift velocity.

vd - drift velocity, a – acceleration, τ – relaxation time, E – electric

field, e – electronic charge, m – mass of electron, n – number
density of electrons, l – length of the conductor and A – Area of cross-
section
Current density:
Current density at a point, within a conductor, is the current through a
unit area of the conductor, around that point, provided the area is
perpendicular to the direction of flow of current at that point.

J = I / A = nevd
In vector form, I = J . A

Ohm’s Law:
The electric current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across the two ends of the
conductor when physical conditions such as temperature,
mechanical strain, etc. remain the same.
I
IαV or V α I or V = R
I
I V

0 V
Resistance:
The resistance of conductor is the opposition offered by the
conductor to the flow of electric current through it.

R=V / I

Resistance in terms of physical features of the conductor:

I = neA | vd | m
where ρ
l ne 2
τ
R = =
I = neA (e |E| / m) τ A is resistivity or
ρ specific resistance
ne2Aτ V
I= Resistance is directly proportional
m l
to length and inversely
V ml proportional to cross-sectional area
= of the conductor and depends on
I ne2Aτ
nature of material.
m l
R = Resistivity depends upon nature of
ne τ A
2
material and not on the
geometrical dimensions of the
conductor.
Relations between vd , ρ, l, E, J and V:
ρ = E / J = E / nevd When temperature
(since, J = I / A = nevd ) increases,
vd decreases and ρ
vd = E /(neρ)
increases.
(since, E = V / l )
vd = V /(neρl) When l increases, vd
decreases.
Conductance and conductivity:
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance. Its S.I unit is mho.
Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity. Its S.I unit is mho / m.

Temperature dependence of Resistances:

m l When temperature increases, the no. of collisions
R = increases due to more internal energy and relaxation
ne2τ A
time decreases. Therefore, Resistance increases.
Temperature coefficient of Resistance:R0 – Resistance at 0°C
Rt – R0 R2 – R1
or α = Rt – Resistance at t°C
α=
R0 t R1 t2 – R 2 t1
R1 – Resistance at t1°C

If R2 < R1, then α is – ve. R2 – Resistance at t2°C

Colour code for carbon resistors:
The first two rings from the end give
the first two significant figures of B V B Gold
resistance in ohm.
17 x 100 = 17 ± 5% Ω
The third ring indicates the decimal
multiplier.
The last ring indicates the tolerance
in per cent about the indicated value.
G R B Silver
Eg. AB x 10C ± D % ohm 52 x 106 ± 10%
Ω
Lette Colour Numbe Colour Tolerance
r r
B Black 0 Gold 5%
B Brown 1 Silver 10% BVB
R Red 2 No colour 20% 17 x 100 = 17 ± 20% Ω
O Orang 3    
e
Y Yellow 4    
B B ROY of Great Britain has
G Green 5    
Very Good Wife
B Blue 6    
V Violet 7    
G Grey 8    
W White 9    
Another Colour code for carbon resistors:
i) The colour of the body gives the first
significant figure. Red Ends Yellow Body Gold Ring
ii) The colour of the ends gives the second
Blue Dot
significant figure.
iii) The colour of the dot gives the decimal YRB Gold
multipier.
iv) The colour of the ring gives the 42 x 106 ± 5%
tolerance. Ω

Series combination of resistors:

R = R1 + R2 + R3

R1 R2 R3 R is greater than the greatest of

all.
Parallel combination of resistors:
R1
1/R =1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
R2
R is smaller than the smallest of
R3 all.
Sources of emf:
The electro motive force is the maximum potential difference
between the two electrodes of the cell when no current is drawn from
the cell.
Comparison of EMF and P.D:
EMF Potential Difference
1 EMF is the maximum potential P.D is the difference of potentials
difference between the two between any two points in a closed
electrodes of the cell when no circuit.
current is drawn from the cell
i.e. when the circuit is open.

2 It is independent of the It is proportional to the resistance

resistance of the circuit.
3 The term ‘emf’ is used only for
the source of emf.
4 It is greater than the potential
difference between any two
points in a circuit.
between the given points.
It is measured between any two
points of the circuit.
However, p.d. is greater than emf
when the cell is being charged.
 Internal Resistance of a cell:
The opposition offered by the electrolyte of the cell to the flow of
electric current through it is called the internal resistance of the cell.
Factors affecting Internal Resistance of a cell:
i) Larger the separation between the electrodes of the cell, more the length
of the electrolyte through which current has to flow and consequently a
higher value of internal resistance.
ii) Greater the conductivity of the electrolyte, lesser is the internal resistance
of the cell. i.e. internal resistance depends on the nature of the electrolyte.
iii) The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the common
area of the electrodes dipping in the electrolyte.
iv) The internal resistance of a cell depends on the nature of the electrodes.
E =V+v
= IR + Ir E r
= I (R + r) v
I = E / (R + r) I I
R
This relation is called circuit
equation.
V
 Internal Resistance of a cell in terms of E,V and R:

E =V+v E r
= V + Ir
Ir = E - V v
I I
Dividing by IR = R
V,
E V
Ir E–V r =( - 1)
= R
IR V V
Determination of Internal Resistance of a cell by voltmeter method:
V V
+ +

r r

I I
R.B R.B
(R) (R)
K K
Open circuit (No current is drawn) Closed circuit (Current is drawn)
EMF (E) is measured Potential Difference (V) is measured
Cells in Series combination:
Cells are connected in series when they are joined end to end so that
the same quantity of electricity must flow through each cell.
NOTE:
E r E r E r
1. The emf of the battery is the
sum of the individual emfs
I I
2. The current in each cell is the
same and is identical with the R
current in the entire
arrangement.
V
3. The total internal resistance of
the battery is the sum of the
individual internal resistances.

Total emf of the battery = nE (for n no. of identical

cells)
Total Internal resistance of the battery = nr
Total resistance of the circuit = nr + R
(i) If R << nr, then I = E / r (ii) If nr << R, then I = n (E / R)
nE
Current I Conclusion: When internal resistance is negligible in
= nr + R comparison to the external resistance, then the cells
are connected in series to get maximum current.
Cells in Parallel combination:
Cells are said to be connected in parallel when they are joined positive to
positive and negative to negative such that current is divided between the
cells.
E r
NOTE:
1. The emf of the battery is the same as that of a
single cell.
E r
2. The current in the external circuit is divided equally
among the cells.
3. The reciprocal of the total internal resistance is the
E r
sum of the reciprocals of the individual internal I I
resistances.

Total emf of the battery = E R

Total Internal resistance of the battery = r / n V

Total resistance of the circuit = (r / n) +
R

(i) If R << r/n, then I = n(E / r) (ii) If r/n << R, then I = E / R

nE
Current I Conclusion: When external resistance is negligible in
= nR + r comparison to the internal resistance, then the cells
are connected in parallel to get maximum current.
CURRENT ELECTRICITY - II

1. Kirchhoff’s Laws of electricity

2. Wheatstone Bridge
3. Metre Bridge
4. Potentiometer
i) Principle
ii) Comparison of emf of primary cells
KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS:
I Law or Current Law or Junction Rule:
The algebraic sum of electric currents at a junction in any
electrical network is always zero.

I1 I2

I3 I1 - I2 - I3 + I4 - I5 = 0
O
I5
I4
Sign Conventions:
1. The incoming currents towards the junction are taken positive.
2. The outgoing currents away from the junction are taken negative.

Note: The charges cannot accumulate at a junction. The

number of charges that arrive at a junction in a given time
must leave in the same time in accordance with conservation
of charges.
II Law or Voltage Law or Loop Rule:
The algebraic sum of all the potential drops and emf’s along any
closed path in an electrical network is always zero.
I 1 E1 R1 I1
A B Loop ABCA:

R2 - E1 + I1.R1 + (I1 + I2).R2 =

I2 I1 + I1 0
I2
Loop ACDA:
D C
I2 E R3 I2 - (I1 + I2).R2 - I2.R3 + E2 =
2
0
Sign Conventions:
1. The emf is taken negative when we traverse from positive to negative
terminal of the cell through the electrolyte.
2. The emf is taken positive when we traverse from negative to positive
terminal of the cell through the electrolyte.

The potential falls along the direction of current in a current path

and it rises along the direction opposite to the current path.

3. The potential fall is taken negative. Note: The path can be traversed in
4. The potential rise is taken positive. clockwise or anticlockwise direction of
the loop.
 B
Wheatstone Bridge:
P Q
Currents through the arms are I1 I1 - I g
assumed by applying Kirchhoff’s Ig
Junction Rule.
Applying Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule A G C
for:
Loop ABDA:
-I1.P - Ig.G + (I - I1).R = R S
0 I - I1
I I - I1 + Ig I
Loop BCDB:
- (I1 - Ig).Q + (I - I1 + Ig).S + Ig.G = D
0

When Ig = 0, the bridge is said to I I

E
balanced.

By manipulating the above equations, we P R

get Q S
Metre R.B (R) X
Bridge:
Metre Bridge is based
on the principle of G
Wheatstone Bridge.
A B
When the galvanometer l cm J 100 - l cm
current is made zero by
adjusting the jockey
K
position on the metre- E
bridge wire for the given
values of known and
unknown resistances,

R RAJ R AJ R l (Since,
Resistance α
length)

Therefore, X = R (100 – l) X
∕l 100 - l
X RJB X
JB
Potentiomete I
+
r:
Principle: V
E A
0 l cm J 100
V=IR
A 20
= I ρl/A 0
+ 30
If the constant current flows Rh 0
B 40
through the potentiometer
0
wire of uniform cross
sectional area (A) and K
uniform composition of
material (ρ), then

V = Kl or Vαl
V /l is a constant.
V
The potential difference across any length of a
wire of uniform cross-section and uniform
composition is proportional to its length when a
0
constant current flows through it. l
Comparison of emf’s
E1
using Potentiometer: R.
I + B G
The balance point is +
obtained for the cell E2
when the potential at a E A
0 l2 J2
point on the 100
potentiometer wire is A 20 l1 J1
equal and opposite to + 0
30
the emf of the cell. Rh
E1 = VAJ1 = I ρl1 /A B 40
0
0
E2 = VAJ2 = I ρl2 /A
K
E1 / E2 = l1 /l2
Note:
The balance point will not be obtained on the potentiometer wire if
the fall of potential along the potentiometer wire is less than the emf
of the cell to be measured.
The working of the potentiometer is based on null deflection
method. So the resistance of the wire becomes infinite. Thus
potentiometer can be regarded as an ideal voltmeter.

End of Current Electricity

Kirchhoff's Rules

There are two KIRCHHOFF'S RULES.

1. Junction rule 2. Loop rule

These are useful in circuit analysis.

Kirchhoff's Rules

Junction rule. The sum of the magnitudes of the currents directed into a
junction equals the sum of the magnitudes of the currents directed out of the
junction.
Loop rule. Around any closed circuit loop, the sum of the potential Rises
equals the sum of the potential drops.
Junction Rule

Junction rule. The sum of the

magnitudes of the currents directed into a
junction equals the sum of the magnitudes
of the currents directed out of the
junction.
Application of Junction Rule

Q: A galvanometer with a full-scale

limit of 0.100 mA is to be used to
measure a current of 60.0 mA. How
much current will pass through the
shunt resistance R?
A: 60.0 – 0.1 = 59.9 mA
Loop Rule

Loop rule. Around any closed circuit loop, the sum of the potential drops
equals the sum of the potential rises.
Application of Loop Rule

The circuit shown below contains two batteries and two resistors.
Determine the current I in the circuit.
Problem

a. Fine the magnitude of the current in the

circuit.
b. The magnitude of the potential
difference between the points
labeled A and B.
c. State which point, A or B, is at the higher
potential.
 Problem
Find the current in the 4 ohm resistor in the
drawing. Specify the direction of the current.
METRE BRIDGE EXPERIMENT
WHEASTONE’S
PRINCIPLE

 
 𝑃 𝑅
=
 𝑄 𝑆
•• P=X
 

• Q=R
• r is the resistance per cm of the metre bidge
wire
• R= l1r
• S= l2r

•X=R
TABULAR COLUMN
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY -1
• Electric current
• Ohm’s law
• Resistance and Resistivity
• Current density
• Drift of electrons and resistivity
• Mobility
• Limitations of ohm’s law
• Colour code of carbon resistor
• Temperature resistance of resistivity
• Electrical energy and power
• Combination of resistors
 Electric Current
•   It is defined as the rate of flow of charges across a given area of cross section.

I=
For unsteady currents, electric current is defined as the rate of flow of net charge ΔQ
flowing across a cross section of a conductor in time Δt, in the limit of Δt tending to zero.
I(t) =
=

The S.I. unit of current is ampere(A)

Electric current in conductors
• Electric charge in motion, due to the force experienced by an applied electric
field, constitutes electric current.
• In solid conductors the current is carried by negatively charged electrons.
• In electrolytic solution the current is carried by the motion of positive and
negative ions.
• When no electric field is applied ,the electrons are in random motion and the
average velocity of charges is zero . Therefore there will be no net current.
 Ohm’s law
The electric current, I, flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference ,V across the two ends of the conductor, provided the physical conditions like
temperature, entropy etc. remain a constant.
IαV
V = RI

where the constant of proportionality R is called the resistance of the

conductor.
The S.I unit of resistance is ohm(Ω).
Ohm’s law
 One ohm is the resistance of a conductor which
develops a potential difference of 1 volt when a current of
1A is passing through it.

•   resistance of a conductor depends on:

The
(i) The length of the conductor
Rα l
(ii) The area of cross-section of the conductor
R α 1/A
(iii) The temperature of the conductor
At a constant temperature, R α
R = ρ,
where ρ is called the resistivity or the specific resistance of the conductor.
Its unit is ohm metre(Ωm).
Resistance and Resistivity• Resistivity or specific resistance is
• Resistance is the property of a
substance by virtue of which it
opposes the flow of current or
charge.
• Its unit is Ω.
• Factors affecting resistance are
length of the conductor, area of the
cross-section of the conductor,
temperature of the conductor and
nature of material of the conductor
the property of the material of the
conducting substance and is defined
as the resistance of a conductor of
unit length and unit area of cross-
section.
• Its unit is Ωm.
• Factors affecting resistivity are
temperature, number density of free
electrons, type of conductor and
relaxation time.
Current density: Current per unit area( taken
normal to the current)is called current density .It
 is denoted by
•  
According to ohm’s law, V =IR =Iρ =jρl
. Its S.I unit is A/.
If E is the magnitude of uniform electric field in the conductor of length I, then
V = El
⇒ El = jρl
E = jρ
=
= =σ
where σ is conductivity .Its S.I unit is mho/m or siemen/metre
Drift of electrons and resistivity
•   velocity is defined as the velocity with which the free electrons are moving or
Drift
drifting towards the positive terminal under the effect of the applied (external) electric field.
Consider a conductor of length l, area of cross section A across which an electric field E is
present due to potential V being applied.
The acceleration a, produced in the free electron due to the field

a = -eE/m

The electrons undergo collisions.

The average velocity of the electrons in the presence of an electric field is called drift
velocity, .
•  The average time interval between two successive collisions of free electrons is called relaxation
time, τ.
= ae
If n is the number density of free electrons and nAΔt is the number of electrons crossing area A in
time Δt, then
Current flowing, I= = = neA
I=τ
Also, I=A
Therefore, = .τ
In vector form, = .τ,
As j= E= , = .τ
Therefore, ρ=
 Mobility (μ)
•  Conductivity is due to mobile charge carriers.
• Moblity ,μ is defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric field

μ= = τ
• The S.I unit of mobility is /Vs, where V is volt and s is second.
Limitations of Ohm’s law
Ohm’s law is valid over a large class of materials , but in some
materials and devices it does not hold true.

(i) V ceases to be proportional to I.

(ii) The relation between V and I depends on the sign of V. ,e.g. in
a diode.
(iii) The relation between V and I is not unique.
e.g. in Ga As.
 Commercial Resistors :

Commercial resistors are of two major types.

(i) Wire bound resistors: They are made by winding the wires of an alloy e.g. manganin ,
nichrome and constantan.
The resistances are in the range of a fraction of an ohm to a few hundred ohms.

(ii) Carbon resistors: They are made from carbon. They are compact, inexpensive and small
in size and their values are given using a colour code.
Colour code for carbon resistors :
The resistors have a set of co-axial coloured rings. The first two
bands indicate the first two significant figures of resistance in
ohms.The third band indicates the decimal multiplier. The last
 band indicates the tolerance 27x 5%
Table for resistor colour code
colour Number Multiplier Tolerance(%)
Black 0 1  
Brown 1 101  
Red 2 102  
Orange 3 103  
Yellow 4 104  
Green 5 105  
Blue 6 106  
Violet 7 107  
Gray 8 108  
White 9 109     27x 5% Ω
Gold   10 -1 5
Silver   10-2 10
No colour     20
Electrical Resistivity and Its temperature
dependence
•  
Depending on the electrical resistivity, materials are classified into:
(i) Conductors: Resistivity in the range of Ωm to Ωm. The resistivity over a limited range of
temperatures is given by
,
where is the resistivity at temperatureT, is the resistivity
at temperature and is the temperature coefficient of resistivity. S.I unit of α is . For metals,
is positive.
• (ii) Semi conductors: The resistivity is between that of conductors and insulators.
Resistivity decreases with increase in temperature.
• (iii) Insulators: Resistivity is times that of metals. The resistivity decreases with increase
in temperature.
 Electrical Energy and Power
•  Electrical power is the rate at which electric energy is converted into
heat energy.
P= VI = R= .
• Electric power is transmitted from power stations via transmission
cables. The energy loss through transmission is called transmission
loss. It can be minimised by transmitting electric power at low current
and high voltage through a transmission line.
• Power dissipated, = = , where P is the device power.
Combination of Resistors
•  
(i) Series combination of resistors
If three resistors of resistances ,combined in series,

Effective resistance, R=
The potential drop across the combination, V= + .
 (ii) Parallel combination

• three
If   resistors of resistances combined in parallel,

Effective resistance +
The current through the combination = +
 Comparison of EMF and Potential difference
EMF
(i) EMF is the maximum potential difference
between the two electrodes of the cell when
no current is drawn from the cell,i.e, when
the circuit is open.
(ii) It is independent of the resistance of the
circuit.
(iii) The term emf is used only for the source of
the emf.
(iv) It is greater than the potential difference
between any two points in a circuit.
Potential Difference
(i) P.D is the difference of potentials between
any two points in a closed circuit.
(ii) It is proportional to the resistance between
the given points.
(iii) It is measured between any two points of the
circuit.
(iv) However, P.D is greater than emf when the
cell is being charged.
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY -2
• Internal resistance of a cell
• Cells in series and parallel
• Kirchhoff’s Rules
• Wheatstone’s bridge
• Metre bridge
• Potentiometer
• Comparison of emf using potentiometer
• Internal resistance of a cell using potentiometer
Internal Resistance of a cell
• The
  electromotive force (emf), E, is the potential difference between the positive and
negative electrodes in an open circuit(ie) when no current is flowing through the cell.

• The electrolyte through which the current flows has a finite resistance r, called the
internal resistance.

• The terminal potential difference, V is the potential difference between the terminals of
the cell when current is flowing through the cell.
V= E –Ir
According to ohm’s law, V=IR
Therefore, IR=E-Ir
I=
The max current that can be drawn from a cell is (for R=0)
Internal resistance of a cell in terms
of •E,V
 
&R

V=E-Ir
Ir= E-V
Dividing by IR=V,
 Cells in Series
•  
Consider two cells of emf
series. Using the relation for potential difference and internal resistance,

• The equivalent emf, =

• The effective resistance of the combination, =
Extending to n number of cells in series combination :
(i) The equivalent emf of a series combination of n cells is just the
sum of their individual emfs.
(ii) The equivalent internal resistance of a series combination of n
cells is just the sum of their internal resistances.
•  

(ii) Cells in parallel combination

Consider two cells of emf

=
The current in the external circuit is divided among the cells.
=
=
=(
•  

= - I()
⇒

For n no. of cells in parallel combination,

 KIRCHHOFF’S RULES

•  
(I)Junction rule : At any junction , the sum of the currents entering the junction is
equal to the sum of the currents leaving the junction.

Sign convention
1. The currents coming into the junction is taken as positive.
2. The currents leaving the junction is taken as negative.
When currents are steady, there is no accumulation of charges at any junction or at any point in a
line.
(II)Loop rule:
• The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop involving resistors and
cells in the loop is zero
Or
The algebraic sum of all the potential drops and emfs along any closed path in an electrical
network is always zero.
Sign Conventions
(i) The emf is taken negative when we traverse from positive to negative terminal of the
cell through the electrolyte.
(ii) The emf is taken positive when we traverse from negative to positive terminal of the
cell through the electrolyte.
•  

• Using Kirchhoff’s junction rule the current direction and values are marked
• Using Kirchhoff’s loop rule ,

For loop AFCBA

=0

For loop EDCFE,

=0
Wheatstone Bridge
The Wheatstone bridge has four resistors P,Q,R and X. The arm AC
is called the battery arm. The arm BD is called the galvanometer arm.
Current flows through all the resistors and the current
flowing through the galvanometer.
In a balanced bridge, the resistors are such that
Applying Kirchhoff's rule to the closed loops ABDA and CBDC,
For loop ABDA
-

For loop BCDB,

-
Therefore,
From the above equation,

 
 Metre bridge

Metre Bridge is based on the principle of Wheatstone

 

Bridge.
The unknown resistance is X. By adjusting the jockey,
the bridge is adjusted to the balanced state, i.e, no
current flows through the galvanometer. Then,
,
where is the resistance per unit cm.
Therefore, X=
 Potentiometer
• It is a long piece of uniform wire of a few metres in length, fixed on a wooden board, across which a
standard cell is connected
• Principle: If a constant current flows through a wire of uniform cross section, then the potential
difference across any length of the wire is directly proportional to its length.
 Comparison of emf’s using potentiometer
•  Two cells of emf connected as shown in the circuit to

a potentiometer. The balance point is obtained for the cells

separately,(say &respectively ) ,where the potential at the point on the potentiometer wire is
equal and opposite to the emf of
the cell
 Note
• The balance point will not be obtained on the potentiometer wire if the fall of potential along the
potentiometer wire is less than the emf of the cell to be measured.
• The working of the potentiometer is based on null deflection method. So the resistance of the
wire becomes infinite. Thus potentiometer can be regarded as an ideal voltmeter.
Internal Resistance of Cell Using Potentiometer
 
The cells, whose internal resistance is to be found, is connected to the
potentiometer as shown.
With key open, the balance point of
emf is obtained at length (A)

With key closed, the balanced point of

terminal potential difference is obtained at length
(A).
V

Therefore r=

r=