Unit 1

Recent Physico-Chemical Treatments of Wastewater

Treatment of sewage

Grit Skimming PST

Screen Chamber Tank

Aeration

Trickling Sludge
Disposal SST
Filter digestion
Terminologies associated with wastewater
Term Definition
Effluent The liquid discharged from a processing step
Characteristics General classes of wastewater constituents such as physical, chemical, biological constituents

Point sources Pollution discharged at a specific location from pipes, outfalls, and conveyance methods from either municipal wastewater treatment
plants or industrial waste treatment facilities

Non-point sources Sources of pollution that originate from multiple sources over a relatively large area

Parameter A measurable factor

Constituents Individual components, elements, or biological entities such as suspended solids or ammonia nitrogen

Pollutants Constituents added to the water supply through use

Impurities Undesired constituents of wastewater
Contaminants Hazardous constituents of wastewater
Sludge Solids removed from wastewater during treatment.
Solids Material removed from wastewater by gravity separation and is the solid residue from dewatering operations

Recycling The reuse of treated water and biosolids for beneficial purposes
Reuse Beneficial use of reclaimed or purified wastewater or stabilized biosolids in order to reduce capital cost

Disinfection Reduction of disease-causing microorganisms by physical and chemical means

 Physical treatments
 Use of physical methods for the treatment of wastewater
 Altercation of physical properties of pollutants such as density,
specific gravity, viscosity etc. for their removal from wastewater
 Used for the removals of both undissolved and dissolved impurities
 Processes such as screening, skimmimg, equalization,
sedimentation, advanced oxidation processes, photo fenton
process, grit chambers and cascade aerators are some of the
examples
Screening
Purpose of screening
 To remove floating bodies which may clog the pumps used in
treatment plants.

 To remove the solids from the sewage which will form ugly sludge
banks at the site of disposal in case of only primary treatment.

 To remove the solids which will clog trickling filters and will also
interfere with the aeration in the activated sludge treatment units
Screening (continued)
Types of screens
A screen is a device with openings generally of uniform size for
removing bigger suspended or floating matter in sewage. The
screening element may consist of parallel bars, rods or wire meshes.

 Racks or bar screens

 Perforated or fine screens

 Communiters or cutting screens

Screening (continued)
Bar screens
 May be coarse or medium size screens
 Coarse bar screens consists of steel bars placed vertically or at an
angle to the horizontal.
 Opening between the bars are 5cm or above.
 They remove the rags, sticks, dead animals etc. from the sewage
and prevent the sewage pumps against damage.
 Medium size screens have openings between 2cm to 5cm
Screening (continued)
Bar screens
Screening (continued)
Fine screens
 When sewage is directly disposed off after screening, it becomes
necessary to remove even finer particles so that they may not cause
sight nuisance in the natural water courses.
 The fine screens are mostly manufactured from metal plates having
perforations.
 The sizes of these perforations are between 0.7 mm to 1.5 mm.
 Fine screens are placed at an angle 45 to 60 degrees to the flow of
water so that maximum surface area of the screen can be utilized.
Screening (continued)
Fine screens
Screening (continued)
Communiters
 These are cutting screens which are popular in modern sewage
works due to their efficiency and less maintenance cost.
 These are divided into Communiters and Shredders

Communiter Shredder
Screening (continued)
Disposal of screenings
Burial
 The medium size screening can be disposed of by this method.
 In this method trenches are excavated and screenings are buried
into them.
 The trenches are immediately covered with soil.
 Generally biodegradable screenings are disposed off by this
process
Screening (continued)
Disposal of screenings
Incineration
 Screening matter is burnt in the air.
 Before burning the screenings are dried by spreading them over the
ground and exposing them to the sun.
 Oil and coal are generally used as fuel for burning.
 This method is costly, therefore is not commonly used
Skimming
Purpose of skimming

 Mostly all types of sewage contains grease, oil and fats etc.

 They form scum, clog the fine screens, reduce the efficiency of the
biological process, form odorous matter.
 Therefore, it becomes necessary to remove such substances before
the wastewater is supplied for secondary treatment.
 A skimming tank serves that purpose and used widely.
Skimming (continued)
Structure and design of skimming tanks

 The tank is in the form of long, trough shaped structure.

 The surface is made as large as possible.
 Detention period of 3 min is provided.
 To prevent heavy solids for settling in the bed, compressed air is
blown through the diffusers placed in the floor of the tank.
 Baffles are provided to increase the flow length of the wastewater.
Skimming
Structure and design of skimming tanks

Plan Elevation
Skimming (continued)
Structure and design of skimming tanks

 The surface area of the tank is calculated by the following formula

−𝟑
 
𝟔 .𝟐𝟐 ×𝟏𝟎 .𝐪 𝟐
𝐀= 𝐦
𝐕𝐫

q = rate of flow of sewage in m3/day

Vr = minimum rising velocity of the oily material to be removed in
metre/minute (0.25 m/min for most of the cases)
Skimming (continued)
Disposal of skimmings

 Can be utilized for the manufacturing of soaps, lubricants, wax and

pitch.
 The skimmings are usually disposed of by burning or burying in
the ground.
 If mineral oils are present, these can be used in production of fuel
gases.
Equalization of flow
Purpose of equalization

 Flow equalization is the dampening of flowrate variations to

achieve a constant or nearly constant flowrate.

 The principal applications are to reduce dry weather flows and

reduce peak flows in the rainy season.
 This is achieved by equalization tanks.
 Equalization of flow (continued)
Design considerations

 Location of the tanks.

 Equalization flow sheet (inline or off-line).

 Volume of the basin.

Sedimentation
Sedimentation
Purpose of Sedimentation

 Removal of fine suspended particles which can’t be removed by

screening and skimming.

 The wastewater is allowed to remain quiescent inside

sedimentation basins.
 The purpose of sedimentation of sewage is to separate the
settleable solids so that the settled sewage does not form sludge
banks and does not provide excessive organic loadings.
 Rectangular sedimentation tank
Water
from Particle settling
screening in Treated water
to inlet zone settling zone Collection from
outlet zone

Particle deposition
in
sludge zone
Circular sedimentation tank
Water
outlet
Particle
settling

Sludge Water
Collection inlet
Sedimentation (continued)
Characteristics of settleable solids

 The settleable solids to be removed in sedimentation tanks are

mainly organic, dispersed or flocculated.
 The specific gravity of suspended solids may vary from 1.01 to 1.20.

 Raw sewage is a dilute heterogeneous suspension of low specific

gravity solids ranging from fully dispersed to completely
flocculated ones
Sedimentation (continued)
Theory of sewage sedimentation

 The laws of plain sedimentation is applicable for the sewage

sedimentation.
 The settling velocity of particles by Newton’s law is given by,
𝐯 =𝟏 .𝟖 √ 𝐠 ( 𝛒 𝐳 − 𝛒 ) 𝐝
 

v = settling velocity (cm/sec), ρz = specific gravity of the particle

g = acceleration due to gravity, ρ = specific gravity of the fluid
d = diameter of the particle (cm)
Sedimentation (continued)
Design of sedimentation tanks
Let L, B and D be the length, breadth and effective depth of the settling tank

Then the cross sectional area = Ac = B × D

surface area = A = B × L
Let Q be the rate of flow and
U be the horizontal velocity

Q = AcU = B.D.U Flow direction of wastewater

If T is the detention time of the tank, then capacity of the tank will be,
QT
Sedimentation (continued)
Design of sedimentation tanks
 
In other words we can say
 
If “v” is the settling velocity of the particle, the particle must settle down in the bed
before the sewage reached the outlet. Hence we can say
 
From the above equations
 
Or v
 
Or v

The above expression gives that the settling velocity should be equal to the surface loading of
the settling tank.
Sedimentation (continued)
Standard design loading of sedimentation tanks

 Effective depth of 2.5 to 3.5 m is provided in most of the cases

 During the design of the sedimentation tank, the surface loading is adjusted in
such a way that it becomes numerically equal to the settling velocity of the
suspended particles.
 The surface loading in sewage settling tanks is kept between 40 to 50 m3/m2/day

 The horizontal velocity V is kept between 30 to 60 cm/min

 Detention period is kept between 1 to 3 hour
Advanced oxidation processes
Advanced oxidation processes (AOP)
Definition

 Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are a set of treatment designed to remove

organic and inorganic materials in wastewater by oxidation through reactions
with hydroxyl radicals (·OH).

 These employ ozone (O3), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and/or UV light.

Advanced oxidation processes (Continued)
Definition

 Rely on in-situ production of highly reactive hydroxyl radicals (·OH).

These reactive species are the strongest oxidants that can be applied in water
and can oxidize virtually any compound present in the water matrix
Consequently, ·OH reacts
unselectively once formed
and contaminants will be
quickly and efficiently
fragmented and converted
into small inorganic
molecules.
Advanced oxidation processes (Continued)
Process
 Hydroxyl radicals are produced with the help of one or more primary oxidants
(e.g. ozone, hydrogen peroxide, oxygen) and/or energy sources (e.g. ultraviolet
light) or catalysts (e.g. titanium dioxide).
Advanced oxidation processes (Continued)
Steps for AOPs
 Formation of OH radical

 Initial attacks on target molecules by OH radical and their breakdown to

fragments
 Subsequent attack by OH radical until ultimate mineralization
Advanced oxidation processes (Continued)
Generation of OH radical
By ozonation
Step 1: O3+HO-→HO2-+O2 (reaction between O3 and hydroxyl radical
leads to the formation of H2O2 (in charged form))
Step 2: O3+HO2-→HO2.+O3-. (a second O3 reacts with the HO2- to
produce ozonide radical)

Step 3: O3-.+H+→HO3. (this radical gives to .OH upon protonation)

Step 4: HO3.→.OH+O2
Advanced oxidation processes (Continued)
Generation of OH radical
By UV/H2O2

H2O2+UV→2.OH

(Homolytic bond cleavage of the O-O bond of H 2O2 leads to the

formation of 2 .OH radicals)
Advanced oxidation processes (Continued)
Generation of OH radical
By photocatalytic oxidation with TiO2
Step 1: TiO2+UV→e-+H+ (Irradiation of the photocatalytic surface
leads to an excited electron and electron gap)

Step 2: Ti(IV)+H2O→Ti(IV)-H2O (Water absorbs onto the catalyst

surface)

Step 3: Ti(IV)-H2O+h+→Ti(IV)-OH+H+ (The highly reactive electron

gap will react with water)
Advanced oxidation processes (Continued)
Categories
Photo-Fenton
process

AOP
Photo-
Photo-catalytic
chemical
process process
Photo-Fenton Process
Photo-Fenton Process
Definition
 A treatment method involving the use of OH radical and sunlight
 OH radical is generated from the reaction between aqueous ferrous ions and
H2O2.
Photo-Fenton Process
Purpose
 Treatment and breakage of organics.
Photo-Fenton Process
Advantages
 Lower operational cost

 Useful to treat organic industrial wastewater

 Lesser by products
Disadvantages
 Only can be applicable as secondary treatment unit

 Depends upon sunlight

Grit Chambers
Grit chambers
Structure and function

 Consists of 10-17 meters of long narrow open channel

 Sewage flows inside this channel with a velocity between 0.24 to 0.3 m/sec

 The depth of liquid in these channels is usually kept between 1 to 1.3 m

 Weir type outlet is provided along with proportional flow weir.
Grit chambers
Design considerations
 Mostly grit chambers are designed to capture particles with specific gravity of
2.65 and a diameter of 2×10-2 cm.
 Near the outlet weir, space is provided to store the grit, in the invert of the
chamber.
 For hydraulic control there should be sufficient provision of adequate surface
area and maintenance of adequate displacement velocity.
 Even during fluctuation of sewage flow, the value of Q/A (surface loading)
should be kept constant.
Grit chambers
Design
1. Settling velocity
Grit chambers can be designed as per the sedimentation tanks. Settling velocity can
be obtained by the following
𝟐
 
𝐠 ( 𝛒𝐬 − 𝛒) 𝐝  
𝐠 ( 𝐒 𝐬 −𝟏)
𝐯= 𝐯= × .𝐝
𝟏𝟖 𝛍 𝟏𝟖 𝛄

Ss = ρs/ρ = specific gravity

γ = µ/ρ = kinematic viscosity
Grit chambers
Design
1. Settling velocity (continued)
 Stokes law holds good for settling of particles of diameter less than 0.1 mm, in
which case viscous force dominate the inertial force. This is called “Streamline
settling”.

 When the settling particles are larger than 1.0 mm, the nature of settling is called
“turbulent settling” and is governed by Newton’s law,
 
𝝆𝒔 − 𝝆
√
𝐯 = 𝟑 .𝟑 𝒈
𝝆
.𝒅
Grit chambers
Design
1. Settling velocity (continued)
 Generally the grit particles lie between 0.1 to 1.0 mm. The zone of settling
corresponding to this range of particles is called “transition zone”.
 The relation between settling velocity, size and density of particles, density and
temperature of the liquid medium in this transition zone is given by Hazen’s
modified equation.
  𝟑 𝐓 +𝟕𝟎
𝐯 =𝟔𝟎 . 𝟔( 𝛒 𝐬 − 𝛒)
𝟏𝟎𝟎
  𝟑𝐓 +𝟕𝟎
T = Temp. in °C 𝐯 =𝟔𝟎 . 𝟔 ( 𝐒 𝐬 −𝟏 ) . 𝐝 .
𝟏𝟎𝟎
Grit chambers
Design
2. Overflow rate
Diameter of Overflow rate in an idea grit
the particle chamber in m3/dm2
(mm) Specific gravity
2.65 1.20

0.20 1700 210

0.18 1600 190
0.15 1300 160
Grit chambers
Design
3. Detention period

 Usually a detention period of 60 sec is adopted

Grit chambers
Design
4. Scour velocity
 The efficiency of the grit chamber is greatly affected by bottom scour.
 The scouring process itself determines the optimum velocity of flow.

 Actually there is a “critical” velocity of flow “v0” beyond which particles of a

certain size and density once settled, may be again placed in motion and
reintroduced into the stream of flow. It can be calculated as,

𝐯 𝟎 =𝟒𝟎 √ ( 𝐒 𝐬 −𝟏 ) 𝐝
 
Grit chambers
Design
5. Proportional flow weir
 The proportional flow weir is a combination of a weir and an artifice.
 It maintains a nearly constant velocity in the grit channels by varying the cross
sectional area of flow through the weir so that the depth is proportional to flow.
 Discharge Q in litres per second over the weir is given by,
 
Q

w = width of the opening at height h in m

C = discharge coefficient.
Grit chambers
Design problem
Design a rectangular grit chamber from the following data.

Flow of sewage = 55×106 litres/day.

Specific gravity of the grit = 2.70

Size of the grit particle to be removed = 0.21 mm

Viscosity of water = 1.0×10-2 cm2/sec

Assume depth of grit chamber = 2.4 m

Assume total length of grit chamber = 16 m
Provide two parallel grit chambers
Grit chambers
Solution
Quantity of sewage = 55×106 litres/day = 2.29×103 m3/hour = 38.17 m3/min.
 
As per Stokes law, settling velocity =
 

4.09 cm/sec
 
Detention period =
Grit chambers
Solution
Capacity of the grit chamber = Quantity of sewage passing through (m3/min) ×
Detention time (min).
 
38.17 m3/min × 1 min.
 
Surface area =

As two parallel grit chambers are provided, the effective length = 16/2 = 8.0 m.

Width of the grit chamber = surface area/length = 16/8 = 2.0 m.

Grit chambers
Solution
Check for horizontal velocity
 
Horizontal velocity =

Check for critical horizontal velocity

v 0 =40 √ ( S s −1 ) d
 

 
v 0 =40 √ ( 2.70 −1 ) 0.21=23.9 cm/ sec
horizontal velocity < critical horizontal velocity
Hence, design is ok
Cascade aeration
Cascade aeration
Structure
 Consists of steps for the gravitational drop of wastewater
Cascade aeration (continued)
function
 Increase the dissolved oxygen content of water

 The dissolved oxygen content will convert the Fe2+ to Fe3+ and Mn2+ to Mn4+

 The conversion of metals from soluble to insoluble form will remove the
metallic components from wastewater

 Used to increase the dissolved oxygen level of the treated wastewater and
remove the metallic constituents
Cascade aeration (continued)
Design consideration
 Depends upon required discharge dissolved oxygen

Parameter Units Range

Hydraulic loading rate m3/(m of width) 1240 - 6200

Step height mm 150 - 300

Step Length mm 300 - 600

Cascade height m 2-5

 Cascade aeration (continued)
Calculation of cascade height
 
in meters
 
R = Deficit ratio =

Cs = Dissolved oxygen saturation concentration of the wastewater (mg/L)

C0 = Dissolved oxygen concentration of the post aeration wastewater (mg/L)
C = Required final dissolved oxygen level after post aeration (mg/L)
a = Water quality parameter equal to 0.8
b = Weir geometry parameter, for a weir b =1.0, for steps b = 1.1, for step weir b =1.3

T = Temperature in °C
Cascade aeration (continued)
Design

Calculate the height (assuming steps) of a cascade aerator at 25 °C wastewater

temperature. The dissolved oxygen in the influent to the post aeration system C0 is
1.0 mg/L and the required final dissolved oxygen concentration C is 6.0 mg/L.
Assume Cs to be 8.25 mg/L.
Cascade aeration (continued)
Solution
 
R = Deficit ratio =

 
3.13 m
Chemical Precipitation
Chemical precipitation
function
 Analogous to coagulation and flocculation
 Salts of iron and aluminium develop heavy precipitates
Chemical precipitation (continued)
Situation when used

 When the sewage flow has high seasonal variation in strength and volume

 When plain sedimentation is unable to remove all the suspended particles

 When excess inorganic suspended solids from industrial waste is present

 When sludge conditioning is required

Chemical precipitation (continued)
Chemicals used

 Aluminium sulfate [Al2(SO4)3.18H2O] (Alum)

 Ferric sulfate (Fe2(SO4)3

 Ferrous sulfate (FeSO4)

 Ferric chloride (FeCl3)

 Ferrous chloride (FeCl2)

Chemical precipitation (continued)
Aluminium sulfate [Al2(SO4)3.18H2O] (Alum)
 Contains 17% of aluminium sulfate
 Alum reacts with water in alkaline medium

 If alkalinity is not present, sometimes Na2CO3 is added to increase pH and the

following chemical reaction takes place
Al2(SO4)3.18H2O + 3Na2CO3 2Al(OH)3 + 3Na2SO4 + 3CO2 + 18H2O

 The insoluble Al(OH)3 will form floc and removes fine suspended particles
Chemical precipitation (continued)
Ferric sulfate [Fe2(SO4)3]
 Available in the market as anhydrous granular form
 Easy to handle and inexpensive
 Optimum dose is 35 mg/L, between pH 8 to 8.5
 The following chemical reaction takes place with natural alkalinity

Fe2(SO4)3 + Ca(HCO3)2 2Fe(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 3CO2

 The insoluble Fe(OH)3 will form floc and removes fine suspended particles
Chemical precipitation (continued)
Ferrous sulfate [FeSO4]
 Available in the market as crystalline form

 Optimum dose is 35 to 70 mg/L

 Requires long contact period up to 30 minutes
 The following chemical reaction takes place,

4FeSO4.7H2O + 4Ca(OH)2 +O2 4Fe(OH)3 + 4CaSO4 + 26H2O

 The insoluble Fe(OH)3 will form floc and removes fine suspended particles
Chemical precipitation (continued)
Ferric chloride [FeCl3]
 Available in the market as anhydrous powder
 Easily used in all temperatures
 Optimum dose is 28 to 35 mg/L, at pH 5.5
 The following chemical reaction takes place with natural alkalinity

2FeCl3 + 3Ca(HCO3)2 2Fe(OH)3 + 3CaCl2 + 6CO2

 The insoluble Fe(OH)3 will form floc and removes fine suspended particles
Chemical precipitation (continued)
Ferrous chloride [FeCl2]
 Prepared by Scott Darcy process by adding 55 kg of chlorine with 45 kg of iron
to form 100 kg of ferrous chloride

 The following chemical reaction takes place with natural alkalinity

4FeCl2 + 4Ca(OH)2 + O2 + 2H2O 4Fe(OH)3 + 4CaCl2

 The insoluble Fe(OH)3 will form floc and removes fine suspended particles
Chemical precipitation (continued)
Clarifier

 In this operation the floc which has been formed is allowed to settle and is
separated from sewage.
Wet air Chemical oxidation
Wet air oxidation
Process
 Process of oxidizing suspended or dissolved materials in liquid phase with
dissolved oxygen as oxidiser at elevated temperature (150 - 375 °C)

 Used when effluent is too dilute to incinerate or too concentrated for biological
treatment
Wet air oxidation (Continued)
Mechanism
 The system is kept under pressure to avoid excessive evaporation of water
 The dissolved oxygen is supplied as pressurized air (10 to 220 bar)
 High pressure increases the boiling point of water and the pollutants present in
the wastewater stream gets mineralized to simple forms like CO2, Cl- and PO43-
Wet air oxidation (Continued)
Commercial applications
 Basically used for the treatment of spent caustic

Classification Temperature Treatment of

(Pressure) compounds
Low 110 - 150 °C Reactive sulfides
(2 - 10 bar)
Mid 200 - 220 °C Sulfides, merceptans
(20 - 45 bar)
High 240 - 260 °C Naphthenic and
(45 - 100 bar) cresylic acids
Wet air oxidation (Continued)
Advantage
 Almost all the organics and inorganics are mineralized in this process

 Process is very fast

Disadvantage
 High energy requirement

 Requires sophisticated infrastructure

Electro-Chemical methods
 Electro-Chemical Method
Process
 Depends upon redox reactions between cathodes anodes and electrical
conductivity.
 Oxidation occurs at the anode and reduction occurs at the cathode.
Electro-Chemical method (Continued)
Mechanism
 Electric current keeps the anode in positive manner and cathode in negative
manner
 The ions in the wastewater will be attracted towards their opposite counterpart
Electro-Chemical method (Continued)
Uses
 Mineralization of organic pollutants

 Removal of cyanides and sulfides

 Heavy metals recovery

Types of electrodes
 Aluminium, Zinc and stainless steel electrodes are used
Dissolved air flotation
Dissolved air flotation
Process
 Air is dissolved in the wastewater under a pressure of several atmospheres,
followed by release of pressure to the atmospheric level.

 In small pressure systems 275 to 350 kPa pressure is used.

Dissolved air flotation (Continued)
Mechanism
 Air is compressed into very small bubbles

 These bubbles mix with the particles whose density is lower than the liquid
medium.
 Hence, these particles will move upward with the pressurized air.
Dissolved air flotation (Continued)
Design considerations
 Laboratory tests should be done to evaluate the concentration of particles,
quantity of air required, the particle rise velocity and the solids loading rate
𝐀 𝟏. 𝟑 𝐬 𝐚 ( 𝐟𝐏 −𝟏)
 

=
𝐒 𝐒𝐚
A/S = Air to solids ratio (mL/mg)
sa = Air solubility (mL/L)
f = Fraction of air dissolved at pressure P (Usually 0.5)
P = Pressure (atm)
S = Influent suspended solids (mg/L)
Dissolved air flotation (Continued)
Design problem
Find the pressure required for a DAF unit using the following data
A/S ratio = 0.008 mL/mg
Air solubility (sa) = 18.7 mL/L
Influent suspended solids = Sa = 3000 mg/L
Assume f = 0.5
Dissolved air flotation (Continued)
Solution

𝐀 𝟏. 𝟑 𝐬 𝐚 ( 𝐟𝐏 −𝟏)
 

=
𝐒 𝐒𝐚
 
0.008