Chapter 2: The Sky

Constellations
Scorpius,
the Scorpion

Sagittarius, the Archer

 In ancient times,
constellations only
referred to the
brightest stars that
appeared to form
groups, representing
mythological figures.

Today, constellations
are well-defined
regions of the sky,
irrespective of the
presence or absence
of bright stars in those
regions. 3
• The stars of a
constellation only
appear to be close to
one another.

• Usually, this is only

a projection effect.

• The stars of a
constellation may
be located at very
different distances
from us.
 Orion
Betelgeuse

Rigel

Stars are named by a Greek letter (α, β, γ,) according to

their relative brightness within a given constellation followed
by the possessive form of the constellation name:
Betelgeuse = α Orionis,
Rigel = β Orionis
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This stamp shows the
constellation Orion.

Why does this look odd

to residents of northern
hemisphere?

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The Magnitude Scale

First introduced by Hipparchus

(160 - 127 B.C.):

• Brightest stars = 1st magnitude

• Faintest stars (unaided eye) = 6th magnitude
(The greater the magnitude, the fainter the star!)

More quantitatively:
• 1st mag. stars appear 100 times brighter than 6th mag. stars
• 1 mag. difference = a factor of 2.512 in apparent brightness
Example:
Mag. diff. Intensity Ratio
Betelgeuse
1 2.512
Magnitude = 0.41 mag
2 2.512 x 2.512
= (2.512)2 = 6.31
… …
5 (2.512)5 = 100 (definition)

For a magnitude difference of Rigel

0.41 – 0.14 = 0.27, Magnitude = 0.14 mag

we find an intensity ratio of

(2.512)0.27 = 1.28

Intensity is a precise term for brightness and expresses the

amount of light energy received by each square meter every
second. (Units: joules/m2/sec)
The magnitude scale system can be extended
toward negative numbers (very bright) and
positive numbers > 6 (faint objects):
•Sirius (brightest star in the sky): mv = –1.42
•Full moon: mv = –12.5
•Sun: mv = –26.5
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The “Concept Art Portfolio” helps with visual understanding of
important concepts
The Celestial Sphere — A model of the sky
• Zenith: Point on the
celestial sphere
directly overhead
• Nadir: Point on the
celestial sphere
directly underneath
(never visible!)
• Celestial equator:
projection of Earth’s
equator onto the c.s.

• North celestial pole:

projection of Earth’s
north pole onto the
c.s.
Skip this slide at first reading—Come back during or after Chapter 3

[ More general view of the celestial sphere ]

• The ecliptic is shown

crossing the celestial
equator at an angle
of 23.5°.
• Do not confuse the
ecliptic plane with
the horizon plane of
the previous slide*.

*The ecliptic (the plane of Earth’s orbit) always makes 23.5° with the celestial
equator, while the horizon makes an angle that depends on the person’s latitude.
 The Celestial Sphere — A model of the sky
• From geographic
latitude +ℓ (northern
90° - ℓ hemisphere), you see
the celestial north
pole ℓ degrees above
ℓ the horizon.
• From geographic
latitude – ℓ (southern
hemisphere), you see
the celestial south
pole ℓ degrees above
the horizon.

• Celestial equator culminates 90° – ℓ above the horizon.

Example: New York City: ℓ ≈ 40.7°

north Celestial
celestial pole Equator

40.7° 49.3°
Horizon Horizon
North South

The south celestial pole is not visible from

the northern hemisphere.
Apparent Motion of the Celestial Sphere
 Horizon System
• The horizon system is a convenient system to use to
locate stars and other celestial objects from one’s local
vantage point.

Star
•Altitude (“height”) is
angular distance from
Height the horizon.
Altitude
Horizon
Azimuth
Direction •Azimuth (“direction”)
locates the place on the
horizon just below the
East
star.
Terrestrial Coordinate System
• The terrestrial coordinate
system is used to locate
places on Earth
• Latitude describes
distance north or south of
the equator
• Longitude describes
distance east or west
from the zero point. The
zero point is located on
the equator, directly
south of Greenwich,
England, along the prime
meridian.
Longitude lines Latitude lines
Equatorial System

• The equatorial system uses

right ascension (or hour
angle) and declination to
locate stars on the celestial
sphere.
• Right Ascension (RA)
= projection of longitude onto
the celestial sphere.
• Declination (Dec)
= projection of latitude onto
the celestial sphere.
 Lines of Lines of
right ascension declination
 Precession

Bulging Earth

Gravity is pulling on a spinning top.→ Wobble around the vertical.

Sun and Moon are pulling on the spinning Earth.
The resulting “wobble” of Earth’s axis of rotation around the vertical
w.r.t. the orbital plane takes about 26,000 years and is called
precession.
 • As a result of precession,
the north celestial pole
follows a circular pattern
on the sky, once every
26,000 years.
• It will be closest to Polaris
~ A.D. 2100.
• ~ 12,000 years from now,
it will be close to Vega in
the constellation Lyra.

**There is nothing special about Polaris.

(neither particularly bright nor nearby, etc.)