GEng 125 – Geometric Geodesy

Engr. Martin Jan E. Mercurio

Course Outcome 2: Explain the fundamental properties of a reference ellipsoid,

datum, reference frames, and reference systems.

Module 2. Reference Systems and Reference Frames

Lesson 2.1 Basic units and constants, time systems and reference coordinates systems

Learning Outcome

• Recognize the units used and constants

Motivation Question
What are the basic units and constants used in geodesy?

Discussion

In defining position with respect to a certain reference (e.g., control point), a

reference system must be used and define. Definition of a such position can be
defined through Cartesian coordinate system, and for global positioning, the
geographic coordinate system is used. In general, the reference system is
represented by coordinate system, defining the orientation in space, origin, and
scale. Realizing the definition of these reference system is represented by
reference frame. An example of this are the fixed points established on the ground
(ground control point) which are precisely determined with certain survey accuracy
order and determined coordinates which is used for subsequent survey and other
applications.

• Basic units and constants

In geodesy, time, length, and mass are the basic quantities used. The following
units are listed as follow (Torge & Müller, 2012):
▪ Second – defined from the duration of 9,192,631,770 period of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the
ground state of the cesium-133 atom
▪ Meter – is the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum during a
time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second.
▪ Kilogram – unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the international
prototype of the kilogram.
▪ Angle – a geometrical shaped formed by the intersection of two lines in
a plane (Burkholder, 2017). Radian is used for angle measurement. It is
defined by an arc on the circumference having equal to the radius. The
use of sexagesimal graduation is also used with the following definition:
▪ One full rotation = 360° = 2π rad
▪ 1° = 60’ (arcminutes)
▪ 1’ = 60” (arcseconds)
▪ Speed of light: c = 299,792,458 ms -1
▪ Gravitational constant: G = (6.67428 ± 0.00067) × 10-11m3kg-1s-2

The Bureau International des Poids et Mésures (BIPM) in Sèvres, France established
and maintained the reference standards of the units.
• Time systems

In geodesy, time is relevant for the measurement of most geodetic observation

especially in electromagnetic waves especially in remote distance measurement
such as in electronic distance measurement and Global Navigation Satellite
Systems ranging. It is also utilized in describing the relative motion of the
polar motion and Earth with respect to the solar system with respect to time or
the temporal resolution (Torge & Müller, 2012).

▪ Atomic time, dynamic time systems

▪ a uniform time scale of high accuracy
▪ given by International Atomic Time (Temps Atomique
International, TAI)
▪ origin of TAI: selected epoch January 1, 1958, 0 h
▪ corresponds to Julian century 63,525 TAI days
▪ TAI is provided by the BIPM time, frequency and gravity section,
from the readings of a large set of atomic clocks
▪ TAI stability is better than 10-15

▪ Sidereal and Universal Time

▪ The diurnal rotation of the Earth which provides a natural
measure of time
▪ This is to relate Earth-based observations to a space-fixed
system
▪ Figure 1 shows the difference of solar day and sidereal day
▪ The diurnal rotation of the Earth about its polar axis. This
approximately coincides with the axis of maximum moment of
inertia, and it passes through the Earth’s center mass (Figure
2)
▪ Annual revolution of the Earth around the sun. Understanding
Kepler’s law of planetary motion, the sun is one of the foci of
the ellipse in which the orbit of the Earth. The Earth’s orbit
is called the ecliptic plane, which has an obliquity of 23.5°
with respect to the equatorial plane (Figure 2).
▪ Sidereal time is related to the rotation of the Earth
▪ Local Apparent Sidereal Time (LAST) refers to the observer local
meridian which is equal to the hour angle h of the true vernal
equinox. The vernal equinox is affected by precession and
nutation in longitude. When the nutation is removed, the Local
Mean Sidereal Time (LMST) is obtained referring to the mean
vernal equinox.
▪ Greenwich Apparent Sidereal Time (GAST) and Greenwich Mean
Sidereal Time (GMST) is referred to Greenwich meridian.
▪ The astronomic longitude (λ or Λ) is the angle between the
meridian planes of the observer and Greenwich:
Λ = 𝐿𝐴𝑆𝑇 − 𝐺𝐴𝑆𝑇 = 𝐿𝑀𝑆𝑇 − 𝐺𝑀𝑆𝑇
▪ LAST is used at the evaluation of astronomical observations to
fixed stars and extra galactic radio sources.
▪ Apparent solar time is sun time. The sun is not constantly
moving, though it is more related to the motion of the Earth.
▪ Mean solar time, or civil time is a time related to a fictitious
sun. This sun is assumed to move at a uniform rate.
▪ Equation of time is the difference between apparent solar and
mean solar time.
▪ Standard time is the mean time at meridians 15° or 1 hour apart,
being measured from Greenwich in eastward (0° to 180°) or
westward (0° to -180°).

Figure 1. Sidereal and solar time (Ghilani & Wolf, 2015)

Figure 2. Earth rotation, equatorial plane, and ecliptic plane

(Torge & Müller, 2012)

Figure 3. Sidereal time, hour angle, and longitude (Torge &

Müller, 2012)
• Reference coordinate systems

The Reference system contains a set of three-dimensional geometric coordinates

and time coordinates.

▪ Celestial Reference System

▪ A space fixed system represents an approximation to an inertial
system
▪ The coordinates of the classical celestial reference system are
defined by the equatorial system of spherical astronomy
▪ Figure 4 shows the astronomic equatorial system which is a
three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system
▪ Origin at the center of the Earth
▪ X-axis is on the equatorial plane and pointing to the vernal
equinox (First point of Aries)
▪ Y-axis is on the equatorial plane and perpendicular to X-axis,
denoting a right-handed system
▪ The rotational axis meets the sphere at the celestial north (PN)
and south (PS) poles
▪ The right ascension α is the angle measured in the plane of the
equator between the planes of the hour circles passing through
the vernal equinox and the celestial body S
▪ The declination δ is the angle measured in the plane of the hour
circle between the equatorial plane and the line OS (+ from
equator to PN and – from equator to PS)
▪ Celestial body can be described in Cartesian coordinates, XYZ,
or by spherical coordinates α, δ, r. The transformation as
follows:
𝑋 cos 𝛼 cos 𝛿
𝑆 = (𝑌 ) = 𝑟 ( sin 𝛼 cos 𝛿 )
𝑍 sin 𝛿
▪ In geodesy, the directions are the only concern, given that r=1,
deducing an unit sphere.

Figure 4. Astronomic equatorial system

▪ Terrestrial Reference System
▪ An Earth-fixed reference system, rotating within the Earth
▪ Used to describe positions and movements pf objects on and close
to the Earth’s surface
▪ Basis for the national surveys, geoinformation systems and
navigation
▪ A three-dimensional geocentric Cartesian coordinate system
▪ Realized through the coordinates which are precisely determined
of a set of fundamental stations of a regional, national, and
global geodetic network
▪ Figure 5 shows the geocentric Cartesian system
▪ Represented by Cartesian coordinates, XYZ
▪ The center is defined and located at the Earth’s center of mass
(geocenter), including oceans and atmosphere
▪ The Z-axis coincide the mean rotational axis
▪ X-axis and Y-axis is perpendicular to each other and lies on
the equatorial plane
▪ The X, Z-plane is generated by the conventional mean meridian
plane of Greenwich, this is where the Universal Time referred
▪ A point can be described its position by spherical coordinates
r (radius), ϑ (co-latitude), λ (longitude) or by Cartesian
coordinates (XYZ) (refer to Figure 6):
𝑋 sin 𝜗 cos 𝜆
𝑆 = (𝑌 ) = 𝑟 ( sin 𝜗 sin 𝜆 )
𝑍 cos 𝜗

Figure 5. Earth-fixed geocentric Cartesian system

 Figure 6. Cartesian and spherical coordinates

References

Burkholder, E. F. (2017). The 3-D Global Spatial Data Model: Principles and
Applications. In Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling (Second, Vol.
53). Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Ghilani, C. D., & Wolf, P. R. (2015). Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to
Geomatics (14th ed.; M. Horton, H. Stark, & C. Heinle, eds.). New Jersey:
Pearson Prentice-Hall.
Torge, W., & Müller, J. (2012). Geodesy (4th ed.). Retrieved from
http://library1.nida.ac.th/termpaper6/sd/2554/19755.pdf