Lesson 1.

2: Branches of Geodesy
Lesson Summary

Typically geodesy is subdivided into geometric geodesy, physical geodesy, and satellite
geodesy, although additional branches are recognize as well. Geometric geodesy
establishes the different coordinate systems that is used in describing locations. Physical
geodesy is concerned with the determination of the gravity field of the Earth, which is
important for height measurements. Satellite geodesy is concerned with using near-Earth
artificial satellites to obtain data for geodetic purposes.

Learning Outcome

1. Discuss the major branches of Geodesy.

Motivation Question

Do you know that satellite navigation is an application of geodesy?

Discussion

The following are the major branches of geodesy:

Geometric Geodesy

Geometric geodesy utilizes geometric methods in studying the shape and size of the Earth.
Geometric positions of terrestrial geodetic control points are calculated using regular
reference ellipsoid where those points are projected. Lu et al. (2014) summarizes the
development of geometric geodesy,

From the nineteenth century, many countries had started national astro-geodetic surveying,
aimed at determining the size of the Earth ellipsoid, and, more importantly, providing
accurate geometric positions of numerous surface points for national topographic
mapping. To serve this purpose, a series of theoretical and technical problems had to be
solved, which promoted the development of geometric geodesy. First, in order to test the
abundant observational data from astro-geodetic surveying and eliminate their
contradictions, on the basis of which to determine the most reliable result and assess
observation accuracy, A.M. Legendre from France first published the theory of the least
squares method in 1806. In fact, early in 1794, the German mathematician and geodesist
C.F. Gauss had already used this theory to derive the asteroid orbit. Later, Gauss dealt with
astro-geodetic survey results by the method of least squares and improved the method
considerably, bringing about the adjustment of the observation method that is widely used
in geodesy today and will be used in the future. Second, both the solution of a spheroidal
triangle and the deduction of geodetic coordinates have to be done on the ellipsoid surface.
Gauss proposed the solution to spheroidal triangles in his Theorema Egregium in 1828.
Many scholars have worked out various formulae regarding deduction of geodetic
coordinates. Gauss also published the conformal projection from the ellipsoid onto the
plane in 1822 (which is why we call it the “Gauss conformal projection”). This is the best
method to convert the geodetic coordinates into plane coordinates and is still extensively
applied today. In addition, in order to use the results from astrogeodetic surveying to
calculate the semimajor axis and the flattening of the Earth ellipsoid, F.R. Helmert from
Germany proposed a method for solving the fittest ellipsoid parameters for the geoid of the
survey area under the condition that the sum of squares of the vertical deflection of all
astronomical points is the least in an astro-geodetic network. This method was later called
the “area method.” (p. 14)

Physical Geodesy

Physical geodesy studies the external gravity field of the Earth to accurately determine the
shape of the geoid and in combination with arc measurements, the size of the Earth. Lu et
al. (2014) summarizes the development of physical geodesy,

Since Clairaut published Theorie de la figure de la Terre in 1743, the most important
development in physical geodesy has been the Stokes theorem developed in 1849 by Sir.
G.G. Stokes from the UK. According to this theorem, the shape of the geoid can be studied
by terrestrial gravimetric results. However, the theorem first required reduction of the
ground gravimetric results to the geoid, which was rather challenging. In spite of that,
Stokes’ theorem still promoted research on the geoid shape. About 100 years later in 1945,
Mikhail Sergeevich Molodensky (Михаил Сергеевич Молоденский) from the former Soviet
Union advanced the Molodensky theorem, which enabled rigorous calculation of the
distance between surface points and the reference ellipsoid (i.e., geodetic height) directly
from terrestrial gravimetric results without any reduction. It is significant that the theorem
allows direct and rigorous calculation of geodetic heights of the surface points by avoiding
the geoid, which cannot be calculated rigorously in theory. Using geodetic heights, the
observed values on the Earth’s surface can be accurately reduced to the ellipsoid, which
enables processing of astro-geodetic surveying data to avoid errors caused by inaccurate
reduction. With the Molodensky theorem, the method of astro-gravimetric leveling and the
normal height system emerged and were widely adopted by many countries. (p. 14-15)

Satellite Geodesy

Satellite geodesy determines the solution of geodetic problems through precise

measurements to, from, or between artificial Earth satellites. Lu et al. (2014) summarizes
the development of satellite geodesy,

Up to the middle of the twentieth century, geometric geodesy and physical geodesy were
well developed. However, measurements of the shape of the Earth and the Earth’s gravity
field were not satisfactory because astro-geodetic surveying can only be conducted on land,
not across the oceans. There was only a limited amount of data from gravity surveys in
areas like oceans, high mountains, and deserts. It was not until the launch of the first
artificial satellite in 1957 that satellite geodesy began to emerge and geodesy developed
into a brand new technique.

Not long after the emergence of artificial satellites, the satellite method was used to
measure the flattening of the Earth ellipsoid precisely. More than a decade later, the
measuring precision of the semimajor axis of the Earth ellipsoid reached , the
coefficient of the spherical harmonics expansion of the Earth’s gravity field was reliably
deduced to the order of 36, and the global geodetic coordinate system had been
established through satellite tracking stations. Modern GPS positioning techniques enable
high-accuracy measurement of the geocentric coordinates of any surface point in the world
geodetic coordinate system based on the precisely measured elements of satellite orbit.
The use of the satellite radar altimetry technique to measure geoid undulation of the
seawater has also yielded good results. The technique of satellite gravimetry is developing
and also has great potential. (p. 15)

References

LU, Z., QU, Y., QIAO, S., 2014. Geodesy: Introduction to Geodetic Datum and
Geodetic Systems. Zhengzhou, Henan, China.