Electroplating, Electroforming and

Electrochemical Machining

Electroplating
 Electroplating may be defined as the process of electrolytically depositing a thin
layer of metal onto a surface
 The object to be plated is made the cathode in an electrolyte bath containing a
metal ion Mn+ so that the simplest reaction at the cathode is:
Mn+ + ne → M
 
The metal M is deposited as a thin layer onto the surface of the object. Where
possible, the preferred anode reaction is the dissolution of the same metal to its
precursor in solution:
 
M → Mn+ + ne
 
 Cont…

and, ideally, the electrolysis conditions are controlled in such a way that the current efficiencies of the above reactions are the same and,
hence, the concentration of Mn+ in the bath remains constant.
 The mass of electroplated metal, w, may be expressed in terms of Faraday's laws of electrolysis as follows:
• w = hMq•

where M is the molar mass of metal, q is the electrical charge, and η (≤ 1) is the cathode current efficiency for metal deposition. Electroplating
is usually carried out at constant current density, I, for a measured time t. The averaged rate of mass deposition per unit area is then given by:

• w = hIM At nF
• 
• where A is the area of the electrode.
• 
• In electroless deposition process, the oxidation of a soluble reducing agent R:
• 
• R → O + ne
• 
• occurs on some site on the substrate surface such that the overall process is: M n+ + R → M + O
•
The deposition of the metal is autocatalytic. Once nucleation has occurred, further

 
 Cont…
deposition is a very favorable process which occurs at a fast rate on
the growing deposit.
Electroforming 

Electroforming is basically an electroplating process. The deposit is normally a thick

metal layer and is made onto a substance, called a mandrel. The purpose is to make a
metal replicate of the mandrel. After the electroplating, the deposit is carefully
separated from the mandrel. The part thus obtained is called an electroform. The main
advantage of electroforming is that it is an atomic scale process assuring replication
fidelity that is unmatched by any other technology. It has been used to create exact
metal replicas of various shapes and textures.
+

electroform mandrel

copper electrolyte
 rotating
mandrel
knife
foil
·

rollers

anode

Electroforming of metal foil. (Foil separated from mandrel by knife

system)
 Cont…
electroformed can be a permanent part of the end product or can be temporary (as in the case of wax), and removed later, leaving only the metal
form, the “electroform”.
 
The advantage of the electroforming process is that it reproduces the form or mandrel to within one micrometre, since the mandrel is machined as
an outside surface, close dimensional tolerances and high surface finishes can be held and maintained on complex interior configurations.
 without the shrinkage and distortion associated with other metal forming techniques such as casting, stamping or drawing. And
In recent years, due to its ability to replicate a mandrel surface precisely atom-by atom with practically no loss of fidelity, electroforming has taken in new
importance in the fabrication of micro and nano scale metallic devices and in producing precision injection molds with micro and nano scale features for production
of nonmetallic micro-molded objects. Electroforming tolerance of 1.5 to 3 nanometers have been reported by some precision fabricators.
 Electrochemical Machining
• In electrochemical machining (ECM), it may be desired to remove a metal to form a hole, or to contour the

surface. The material on which the work is done is the work piece, which is made the anode, and the tool is the

cathode. Both are dipped in an electrolytic cell, and a constant potential difference, usually at about 10 V, is

applied across them. A suitable electrolyte, for example, aqueous sodium chloride (table salt) solution, is

chosen so that the cathode shape remains unchanged during electrolysis.

•  The electrode reactions are:

•  Anode: M → Mn+ + e

•  Cathode: 2H2O + 2e → H2 + 2OH-

•  The electrolyte is also pumped at a rate 9 to 60 meter /second, through the gap between the electrodes to

remove the products of machining and to diminish unwanted effects, such as those that arise with cathodic gas

generation and electrical heating. The rate at which metal is then removed from the anode is approximately in

inverse proportion to the distance between the electrodes. As machining proceeds, and with the simultaneous

movement of the cathode at a typical rate, for example, 0.02 millimeter/second toward the anode, the gap

width along the electrode length will gradually tend to a steady-state value. Under these conditions, a shape,

roughly complementary to that of the cathode, will be reproduced on the anode. A typical gap width then

should be about 0.4 millimeter.

The advantages of ECM are:
 
The components are not subject to either
thermal or mechanical stress.

There is no tool wear during electrochemical

machining.
Non-rigid and open work pieces can be
machined easily as there is no contact between
the tool and workpiece.
Complex geometrical shapes can be machined
repeatedly and accurately
Electrochemical machining is a time saving
process when compared with conventional
machining
During drilling, deep holes can be made or
several holes at once.
ECM deburring can debur difficult to access
areas of parts.
Fragile parts which cannot take more loads and
also brittle material which tend to develop
cracks during machining can be machined
easily through Electrochemical machining
The schematic of an industrial “electrochemical machine”
is shown below.