HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

SCHOOL OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

MA IN GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES (ENVIRONMENT AND

LAND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT)

TERM PAPER OF THE COURCE: PEDOGEOGRAPHY (GeES 532)

TITLE OF THE TERM PAPER: Soil Classification and Mapping

Prepared by Habtamu Demie

ID: Number: Pgp/693/13

Submitted to: Dr. Solomon Tekalign

July 2021

Haramaya University

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SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND MAPPING

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

COVER PAGE……...……..……………………………………………………………….……I

TITLE PAGE……………………………………………………………………………………II

TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………………..…..III

LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………………V

LIST OF ABRIVATIONS…………………………………………………………….…..…...IV

1. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………...………..........1

1.1 Back ground…………….……………………………………..…………………....2

1.2 Objective…………………………………………………..………………….…....…2

1.2.1 General objective……………..……………………………………………...…….2

1.2.2 Specific objectives……………...…………………….……………..……..…..…...2

1.3 Scope………………………………………………………….…………….…..........2

2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE…………………………………………………..3

2.1 Meaning and definition of terms…………………………………………………….3

2.1.1 Definition of soils……………………………………………………………………3

2.1.2 What is soil classification..........................................................................................3

2.1.3 What is soil mapping?...............................................................................................3

2.2 Worldwide soil classification…………………………………………………………3

2.3 Major soil types in Africa……………………………………………………………4

2.4 Types of soils in Ethiopia…………………………………………………………….5

3. METHODOLOGY……………………………………………………………………………7

3.1 Design………………………………………………………………………………..7

3.2 Data collection tools………………………………………………………………….7

3.3 Sampling techniques…………………………………………………………………7

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 3.4 Methods of data analysis…………………………………………………………….7

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION……………………………………………………………….8

4.1 Soil classification……………………………………………………………..………8

4.2 Soil mapping………………………………………………………………………...16

4.2.1 Approaches of soil mapping…………………………………………………...…16

4.2.2 Digital soil mapping……………………………………………………………....16

5. SUMMARY………………………………………………………………………………..…20

6. REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………….21

IV
 LIST OF TABLES

Table page

Table 4.1 the unified soil classification system……………………………………………….11

Table 4.2 Genetic system of soil classification showing general corresponding

classes in soil taxonomy (modified by Thorp and Smith)…………………………….13

Table 4.3 soil orders and their derivation in new comprehensive system

of soil classification (Soil taxonomy)…………………………………………….……14

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 LIST OF ABRIVATIONS

AASHTO: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization

GEOSS: Global Earth Observation System of Systems

ICOMANTH: International Committee on Anthropogenic soils

ISSS: International Society of Soil Science

IUSS: International Union of Soil Sciences

NRCS: Natural resource conservation Service.

NRM: Natural Resource Management

UN: United Nations

UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization

USA: United States of America

USDA: United States Department of Agriculture

WRB: World Reference Base for Soil Resource

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Back ground

Many different approaches have been proposed to come to a sensible grouping of different soils.
Soil classifications were also developed for different purposes. The purpose of a soil
classification is to group together soils with similar properties or attributes. The FAO legend of
soil classification is for representing the global distribution and geography of soil. WRB soil
classification is to facilitate correlations between different soil classification systems. From the
engineering standpoint, it is the geotechnical properties such as permeability, shear strength and
compressibility that are important. The first step in classifying a soil is to identify it. To be of
practical value, a classification system should permit identification by either inspection or
testing, and tests should be as simple as possible. Properties such as grain size, mineral, organic
matter content and soil plasticity are therefore preferred as a basis for a classification system. On
the hand soil mapping is the process of delineating natural bodies of soils, classifying and
grouping the delineated soils in to map units, and capturing soil property information for
interpreting and depicting soil spatial distribution on a map. In soil mapping different techniques
have been prepared. Hence the aim of this term paper is to search and organize different data
regarding to soil classification and soil mapping. To do so, I have searched different sources
from internet and book. Even if there is shortage of essay that I have prepared I believe that
essential points regarding to the title are included and summarized in the term paper.

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1.2 Objectives

1.2.1 General objective

The general objective of the term paper is to assess the overall soil classification and soil
mapping.

1.2.2 Specific objectives

The specific objectives of this study are:

 To asses different types of soil classification and mapping.

 To differentiate techniques for soil classification and mapping.
 To clarify soil classification system in Ethiopia.

1.3 Scope

The term paper is focused on some classification of soil like classification based on historical
development, the unified classification system and FAO classification systems of soil
classification and about digital soil mapping. There are many more soil classification and soil
mapping techniques adopted by different scholars at different time. However the term focused on
a few of the classifications and mapping because of time and other resources constraints.

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2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Meaning and definition of terms

2.1.1 Definition of soils

Soils are the uppermost loose or unconsolidated material overlying the earth’s crustal rocks.
Soils are dynamic, natural and complex substances which support animals and plants.

2.1.2 What is soil classification?

Soil classification is the grouping of soils with a similar range of properties (chemical, physical,
and biological) in to units that can be geo-referenced and mapped.

Soil classification is also defined as the separation of soil in to classes or groups each having
similar characteristics and potentially similar behavior.

2.1.3 What is soil mapping?

Soil mapping is the process of delineating natural bodies of soils, classifying and grouping the
delineated soils in to map units, and capturing soil property information for interpreting and
depicting soil spatial distribution on a map.

2.2 Worldwide soil classification

The World Reference Base (WRB) is an international system for classification of soils. It was
designed to cater for any soil in the world. WRB is based on the Legend (FAO-Unesco, 1974)
and the Revised Legend (FAO, 1988) of the soil map of the world (FAO-Unesco, 1971-1981).
In 1980, the International Society of Soil Science (ISSS, since 2002 the International Union of
Soil Sciences, IUSS) formed a Working Group ‘International Reference Base for Soil
Classification’ for further elaboration of a science based international soil classification system.
This Working Group was renamed ‘World Reference Base for Soil Resources’ in 1992. The
Working Group presented the first edition of the WRB in 1998 (FAO, 1998) and the second
edition in 2006 (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2006). In 1998, the ISSS Council endorsed the
WRB as its officially recommended terminology to name and classifies soils. The first step in
classifying a soil is to identify it. To be of practical value, a classification system should permit
identification by either inspection or testing, and tests should be as simple as possible. In this
respect, tests that require disturbed samples are preferable: not only do they dispense with the
need for undisturbed sampling or field testing but, in addition, the properties they measure do not
depend on the structure of the soil mass. Properties such as grain size, mineral composition,
organic matter content and soil plasticity are therefore preferred as a basis for a classification
system rather than properties such as moisture content, density and shear strength.

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Source: Digital soil mapping ‘’Ronald Vargas Rojas 01 April 2012’’

2.3 Major soil types in Africa

The Food and Agricultural Organization of the UN (FAO) has classified the soils of Africa into
several groups, of which the following are the most important;

 Pedalfers ( the largest group in Africa)

 Pedocals
 Hydromorphic soils
 Azonal soils

A. Pedalfers; are soils with aluminum deposits, with out of a layer of accumulate calcium
carbonate, have content of iron and aluminum. Soils of this group include Ferrasols, nitosols,
acrisols, lixisols, plinthosols, luvisols, planosols, and fluvisols

B. Pedocals; Soils of this group include, vertisols (black basaltic soil with clay content),
calcisols (found in Sahara and Namib Desert of Africa), and Solonchaks (found in inland river
basins, bottom of ancient lakes, depression and coastal areas, are saline and poor productive)

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C. Hydromorphic soil; the soils under this group are found in depressions and low lying areas
of shallow ground water. They are extensively found in Niger delta, the Congo basin, and
interior part of Angola. They are used for the production of rice, sugar cane, yam and vegetables.

D. Azonal soil; includes; arenosols (found in humid tropical part of Africa, the semi-arid zones
of the southern Sahara, southwest Africa and coastal plains) and they are used mainly for grazing
and dry farming. Regosols (found in arid areas extending from West Africa to Ethiopia and
Somalia) and used for pastoralist grazing. Leptosols (young, shallow and stony soils found in
Northern Africa, the Sahara and in southern, central and Eastern Africa) , terracing is the most
important mechanism for cultivating these soils otherwise, they are devoted to transhumance,
forestry, and tourism.

2.4 Types of soils in Ethiopia

According to latest classification made by the FAO, there are eighteen classes of soil in Ethiopia.
Here are the main soil types. They cover more than 85 percent of the country.

A. Nithosols (red basaltic); cover about 12 percent of the country, are associated with high
rain fall and are found in areas that were previously covered with forest., predominant in
western high lands of wollega, keffa, Illubabor, the southern high lands of sidama, the
central and western high lands of Shoa, the highlands of Gojjam and high lands of
Hararghe, are the most widely cultivated soil type. They are the best soil for coffee, inset
and cereals.
B. Vertisols (black basaltic soils); cover about 10 percent of the total land of Ethiopia.
Have high clay content. Are largely found in Arsi, Bale, and Central Hararghe. Limits
their use for grazing purpose because difficult for farming.
C. Acrisols; are found associated with nithosols, cover about 4.5 percent of the country.
Found in southwestern highlands of Ethiopia where there is high rain fall, are extremely
leached and therefore, have low productivity capacity.
D. Cambisoils; are soils that develop from the recent lava deposits of quaternary period, are
young and shallow, are found on the rugged and sloping terrain of the plateau of shoa
(eastern escarpment) and Chercher highlands.
E. Regosols;are shallow and young, but they are course textured, have low agricultural
value, found in Danakil and Ogaden plains.
F. Xerosols; are young and shallow and found in arid and semi arid regions. They have a
weakly developed profile, are found extensively in the Northeastern escarpment,
Northern and Southeastern lowlands, are characterized by high salt content and humus
deficiencies, have little significance for agriculture.
G. Yermosols; are found in desert and semi-desert areas, are salty, acidic and have a
weakly-developed profile, are not suitable for cultivation, even when irrigated, due to

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their salty and acidic nature.

H. Luvisols; are found in areas where they are clearly marked wet and dry seasons and
when leaching is not very high, are among the best soils, are found around lake Tana and
in the Eastern part of the Northern Central Highlands and in the Southern lowlands.
I. Lithosols; are found in areas of low precipitation, cover the escarpment of the
Northeastern and Chercher High lands.
J. Fluvisols; are soils that rivers have transported from highlands to lowlands, cover about
10 percent of the country’s total area, associated with river, sea, and lake deposits, hve
very good agricultural potential, are found extensively in the lower region of the Omo,
Awash, and Baro-Akobo Rivers.

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3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Design

The term paper is designed in descriptive research design. Secondary data from different web
sites and book were gathered to do the study.

3.2 Data collection tools

Document analysis is a data collection tool that I have used to collect the data. To prepare the
essay at least I have gathered data from twelve wed sites and one textbook relating to the topic.

3.3 Sampling techniques

Based on the aim of study, I used Purposive sampling method. The sources are purposively
selected from the internet because it believed to contain the relating information.

3.4 Method of data analysis

Qualitative data analysis method has applied in the study. I have organized the data that have
collected from the internet quantitatively and in descriptive methods. Different tables were used
to analysis the collected data.

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4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Soil classification

Many different approaches have been proposed to come to a sensible grouping of different soils.
Soil classifications were also developed for different purposes. For example:

 Soil taxonomy to interpret soil surveys

 The FAO legend for representing the global distribution and geography of soil
 WRB to facilitate correlations between different soil classification systems.

Some countries and different institutions have their own soil classification systems. Among the
classification systems the followings can be mentioned.

 AASHTO soil classification systems.

 Australian soil classification.
 Canadian system of soil classification.
 French soil classification.
 FAO soil classification.
 International Committee on Anthropogenic soils (ICOMANTH).
 Unified soil classification systems.
 USDA soil classification system.
 USDA soil taxonomy.
 World Reference Base for Soil Resource (WRB).
 Geology unified soil classification.
 Universal soil classification.
 Numerical systems.
 Classification based on historical developments that include: early soil
classification systems, recent systems of soil classification, Baldwin and
Associate’s Genetic Approach, and new comprehensive system of soil
classification (soil taxonomy).

Let us see some of the classification systems in detail.

 FAO soil classification

FAO developed a supra-national classification, which offers useful generalization about

pedogenesis in relation to the interactions between the main soil-forming factors. It was first
published in form of the UNESCO soil map of the world (1974). Many of the names offered in
that classification are known in many countries and do have similar meanings.

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The classification was applied by United Nations sponsored projects. Many countries modified
this system to fit their particular needs.

The soil units (106) were mapped as soil Associations, designated by the dominant soil unit;

 With soil phases (soil properties, such as saline, lithic, stony)

 With three textural classes (coarse, medium, and fine)
 Three slopes classes superimposed (level to gently undulating, rolling to hilly, and
steeply dissected to mountainous)

The 106 soil units form 26 soil groups. The FAO soil map was a very simple classification
system with units very broad, but was the first truly international system, and most soils could be
accommodated on the basis of their field descriptions. The FAO soil map was intended for
mapping soils at a continental scale but not at local scale.

In 1988 the FAO published a Revised Legend with 153 soil units forming 28 major soil
groupings. It serves as basis for the Harmonized World Soil Database.

In 1998 this system was replaced by the World Reference Base for Soil Resources.

FAO Soil Groups (Legend, 1974)

Acrisols Luvisols Xerosols

Andosols Nitosols Yermosols

Arenosols Phaeozems

Cambisols Planosols

hermozems Podzols

Ferralsols Podzoluvisols

Fluvisols Rankers

Gleysols Regosols

Greyzems Rendzinas

Histosols Solonchaks

Kastanozems Solonetz

Lithosols Vertisols

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FAO Major Soil Groupings (Revised Legend, 1988)

Acrisols Greyzems Podsols

Alisols Gypsisols Podzoluvisols

Andosol Histosols Regosols

Anthrosols Kastanozems Solonchaks

Arenosols Leptosols Solonetz

Calcisol Lixisols Vertisols

Cambisols Luvisols

Chernozems Nitisols

Ferralsols Phaeozems

Fluvisols Planosols

Gleysols Plinthosols

 The unifi1ed system

The Unified system is the oldest system to be widely adopted, and variations of this system still
represent probably the most widely used form of classification in the English speaking world. It
was developed from a system proposed by Casagrande (1948) and referred to as the Airfield
Classification system. Coarse grained soils (sands and gravels) are classified according to their
grading, and fine grained soils (silts and clays) and organic soils are classified according to their
plasticity. An ingenious feature of the system is the differentiation of silts and clays by means of
the plasticity. The position of the A line was fixed by Casagrande based on empirical data.
However, the use of this chart for distinguishing silt from clay leads to a subtle change in the
definition of silt compared with its definition in terms of particle size – for instance, it is defined
as comprising particles of 575 μm in the AASHTO system and 263 μm in the BS system. The BS
system suggests the use of the term ‘Msoil’ for silt defined in terms of its plot on the plasticity
chart, to avoid confusion with silt defined in terms of particle size, but the term has never gained
popular acceptance.

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 Table 4.1 the unified soil classification system

Major divisions Typical names symbol

Coarse Gravels( Clean Well graded gravels, gravel-sand mixture, little GW
grained soils more gravels or no fines
the than half of (little or Poorly graded gravels, gravel-sand mixture, GP
material(mo course no fines) little or no fines
re than half fraction Gravels Silty gravels, poorly graded gravel-snd-silt GM
the is larger with fines mixture
material is than (appreciab Clayey gravels, poorly graded gravel-sand- GC
smaller than 4.75 mm) le amount sand-clay mixture
75 of fines)
μm Sands (more Clean Well graded sands gravelly sands, little or no SM
than half of sands fines
coarse (little or Poorly graded sands gravelly sands, little or no SP
fraction is no fines) fines
smaller than Sands Silty sands poorly graded sand-silt mixtures SM
4.75mm with fines
(appreciab Clayey sands poorly graded sand-clay mixtures SC
le amount
of fines)
Fine grained Silt and clays Inorganic silts and fine sands, rock flour, fine ML
soils (more -liquid limit less than 50 sands with slight plasticity
than half the Inorganic clays of low to medium plasticity, CL
material is gravelly clays, d/t clays
smaller than Organic silts and organic silt clays of low OL
75 μm plasticity
Silts and clays Inorganic silts, micaceous fine sands, silty soil MH
-liquid limits greater than Inorganic clay of high plasticity, fat clays CH
50 Organic clay of medium to high plasticity OH
Highly organic soils Peats and other highly organic soils Pt
Source: Soil Properties and their Correlations, Second Edition. Michael Carter and Stephen P.
Bentley.c 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

 Soil classification based on historical developments.

Based on historical development of soil classification, soil classifications have four categories.
Those are:

 Category I. (Early soil classification systems).

Early systems of soils classification were very simple and practical. It includes:

A. Economic classification: grouping soils according to their productivity for the purpose of
11
taxation.

B. Physical classification: based on soil texture, was applicable to zonal soil category.
C. Chemical classification: has not been used to a great extent but soil were grouped as
calcareous soils, acidic soils, and sodic soils.
D. Geological classification: based on the presumed underlying parent material. Two broad
groups are, residual or sedentary soils developed in situ from the underlying rocks and
transported soils developed on unconsolidated sediments like alluvium, colluviums, or
Aeolian materials.
E. Physiographic classification: Characteristics of the landscape were considered. So,
varies geomorphic terms such as levee soils, basin soils, terrace soils, mountain soils, hill
soils, up land soils, and low land soils were introduced to soil classifications.
F. Other systems: for example, based on organic matter extent as organic soil or inorganic
soils. Based on soil structure as single-grained soils and aggregated soils. Based on
humidity, vegetation, and temperature have also been made.

 Category II. (Recent systems of soil classification)

In later part of the 19th c and early part of 20th c soil classification started in a new ways.
Dokuchaiv (1900), Joffey (12) and Marbut (1935) classified soil on the basis of zonality, their
own properties, and morphology emphasizing the need for examination of actual soils for their
characteristics like soil colour, texture, structure, consistency, drainage conditions etc
respectively. Marbut also emphasized the concept of pedalfers and pedacals.

The major defects of Marbut morphogenetic soil classification was that the system was based, in
part, on assumptions concerning soil genesis. Many of the soil series recognized in the USA
could not find place in Marbut systems of classification of soil.

 Category III. Baldwin and Associate’s Genetic Approach.

Marbut’s morphogenetic soil classification system was revised and elaborated by Baldwin,
Kellogg and Thorp (1938).

The important characteristics of the system were;

i. A return to the zonality concept of Russian school.

ii. The pedalfer concept was not given emphasis.
iii. More emphasis was given on soil as a three dimensional body and its characteristics.

A new category like soil family was introduced between great soil group and soil series but
neither the family nor the higher category was defined in relation to soil properties. Serious

12
problems were found were some soil series did not fit in any of the existing great soil groups,
whereas others could be placed equally well in two great soil groups Realizing this problem, the
soil classification of Baldwin et al. (1938) was notified by Thorp and Smith (1949) and presented
in the following table.

Table 4.2 Genetic system of soil classification showing general corresponding classes in soil
taxonomy (modified by Thorp and Smith)

Order Sub-order Great soil groups Some general

corresponding classes
in soil taxonomy
Zonal soil 1. Soils of cold zone Tundra soils Cryaquepts
2. Light coloured soils Desert soils Orthids, Argids
of arid regions. Red desert soils Argids, Orthids
Sierozem Argids, Orthids
Brown soils Argids, Some Ustoll
Reddish brown soils Argids, Some Ustoll
3. Dark coloured soils Chestnut soils Ustolls Borolls
of semi-arid, sub- Reddish chestnut soils Ustolls Borollis
humid and humid Chernozem soils Ustolls
grass lands Prairie soils Udolls
Reddish prairie soils Udolls
4. Soils of the forest Degraded chernozem non- Boralfs, Borolis
grass-land calcic brown or shantung Xeralfs
transition brown soils
5. Light coloured Podzol soils Orthods Boralfs
podzolized soils of Gray wooded or gray Some ochrepts
the timbered podzolic soils
regions Brown podzolic soils Udalts
Grey-brown podzolic soils Udults
Red-yellow podzolic soils Udults
 Lateritic soils of Reddish-brown lateritic soils Udults
forested warm- Yellow-brown lateritic soils Urdults
temperate and Some oxisols
tropical regions Laterite soils
Intrazonal  Halomorphic Solonchak or saline soils Sal orthids
soils (Saline and alkali) Salonetz soils Natr great groups
soils of imperfectly Soloth soils Natr great groups
drained arid regions
and deposits
 Hydromorphic soils Humic-gley soils Aqu sub orders
of marshes, seep Alpine meadow soils Aqu sub orders
areas and flats 13
 Bog soils Aqu sub orders
Half bod soils Aqu sub orders
Low-humic grey-soils Aqu sub orders

Planosols Aqu sub orders

Ground water podzol soils Aquods

Ground water laterite soils Plinthaquex
Azonal  Calcimorphic soils Brown forest soil Eurochrepts
Rendzina soils Rendolis
Lithosols Lithic orthents
ochrepts
Regosols Orthents( psamments)
Alluvial soils Fluv classas (fluvents)
Source: Article shared by Shreeja D. “Evolution of soil classification system: 4 categories’’

 Category IV. New comprehensive system of soil classification (Soil taxonomy)

In order to overcome different anomalies in earlier system of soil classification a new

comprehensive system has been developed. Initially started in 1951, several approximations
were made after taking critical suggestions from pedologists of different countries.

Soils orders in the new comprehensive soil classification are given in the following table.

Table 4.3 soil orders and their derivation in new comprehensive system of soil classification
(Soil taxonomy)

Name of soil Formative Derivation of formative Approximation equivalents in the

order orders elements genetic system
Entisol Ent Nonsense symbol Azonal, some low-humic gley soils

Vertisol Ert L.Verto, turn Grumusols

Inceptisol Ept L. inception, beginning Some brown forest, low humic gley and
humic gley soils

Aridisols Id L.aridus, dry Desert, reddish desert, sierozem,

solanchak, solonetz.

Mollisol Oll L.Mollis, soft Chestnut, chernozem, some brown forest,

solonetz and humic gley soils

Spodosol Od GK. Spodas, wood ash Podzuls, brown podzolic soils. And
ground water podzols
14
Alfisols Alf Nonsense symbol Grey-brown podzolic, grey wooded and
non calcic brown soils. Degraded
chernozems, planosols and half beg soils

Ultisol Ult L. Ultimus.last Red-yellow podzolic soils. Reddish-

brown lateritic soils, planosols and half-
bog soils

Oxisol Ox A. oxide Laterite soils, latosols bog soils

Histosols 1 st GK, histos, tissue

Andisol and Modified from Ando Volcanic ash soils

Gelisol el Frost churning or mixing Frozen tundra soils exhibiting

cryoturbation
Source: Article shared by Shreeja D. “Evolution of soil classification system: 4 categories’’

 USDA Soil taxonomy

Soil taxonomic classification reflects the dominant soil forming factors active during soil
formation at a particular location. The USDA system of soil Taxonomy (soil naming) consists of
a hierarchy of six levels, in order from most general to most specific are

 Order: twelve soils are recognized, the difference among orders reflect the dominant soil
forming processes and the degree of formation. Each order is identified by a word ending
in ‘sol’ an example is Alfisols.
 Sub order: each order is divided into sub orders primarily on the basis of properties that
influence soil formation and/ or are important to plant growth.
 Great group: each sub order is divided into great groups on the basis of similarities in
horizons present, soil moisture or temperature regimes, or other significant soil
properties.
 Subgroup: each great group has a typical subgroup which is basically defined by the
great group. Other sub groups are transition to other orders, suborders or great groups due
to properties that distinguish it from the great group.
 Family: families are established within a subgroup on the basis of physical and chemical
properties along with other characteristics that affect management.
 Series: the series consists of soils within a family that have horizons similar in color,
texture, structure, reaction, consistence, mineral and chemical composition, and
arrangement in the profile.

15
This system of soil taxonomy is comparable to the Linnaean system used in biology to classify
living things (kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species). The system provides
information that can be used by land managers to make inferences regarding a particular utility
for plant production, urban/ residential usages, and waste management and construction sites.

 Classification of soils in general consists of three steps.

• Step one – detecting diagnostic horizons, properties and materials

• Step two – allocating the soil to a Reference Soil Group

• Step three – allocating the qualifiers

4.2 Soil mapping

Soil mapping is the process of delineating natural bodies of soils, classifying and grouping the
delineated soils in to map units, and capturing soil property information for interpreting and
depicting soil spatial distribution on a map.

4.2.1 Approaches of soil mapping

I. Historical approaches

Aerial photographs were used as the mapping base in soil survey areas in the United States
during the 20th century. Conventional panchromatic (black and White) photograph, color
photography, and infrared photography were used for remote sensing and as base maps for soil
survey. Information on the applicability of each type of base map and how the older map
products were used in covered in the 1993 Soil Survey Manual (Soil Survey Division Staff,
1993).

II. Contemporary Approach

Digital imagery has replaced photographs as the mapping base in the 21st century soil survey.
The ability to overlay multiple imagery resources for comparisons, the ability to quickly adjust
scale, and the use of raster-based soil maps have increased the speed of delivering soil survey
products as well as the variety of products available. Customized soil survey products are
enhanced by the choice of background imagery (e.g., color imagery and topographic imagery)
used to display soil survey information.

4.2.2 Digital soil mapping

Digital soil map is a raster-based map composed of 2 –dimensional cells (pixels) organized in to
a grid in which each pixel has a specific geographical location and contains soil data.

16
Digital soil mapping in soil science also referred to as predictive soil mapping or pedometric
mapping is the computer-assisted production of digital maps or soil types and soil properties.

Digital soil maps illustrate the spatial distribution of soil classes or properties and can document
the uncertainty of the soil prediction. Digital soil mapping can be used to create initial soil
survey and to generate soil interpretation.

A significant amount of the data used in digital soil mapping can be archived in a digital format
in a GIS, so the expert knowledge used to predict soil distribution on the landscape is retained.

Digital Soil Mapping in Somalia: mapping soil classes (Vargas and Omuto, 2009)

Case in Somalia: soil data needs

Source;

Status of legacy data and challenges

 Some data were available (soil map, climate data, few soil scientists are available/
willing to venture in to the field)

Strategy:

 Choose area (s) with high demand/ less access restrictions

 Develop necessary data/ re-construct data base
 Combine tools/ methodology for mapping soil
 Soil profile descriptions
Focus on high-rainfall areas

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Source: Digital soil mapping ‘’Ronald Vargas Rojas 01 April 2012’’

Available data Carryout data reconstruction/generation

 A few soil profile data were found

 Reclassifying the profiles using WRB method

Locate areas for new samples. At each location; Surface description, pit excavation, profile
characterization and soil sampling, laboratory analysis (wet chemistry, spectral reflectance).

Soil profile classification- WRB input data layers

-Land form

-geology

-land cover/ use

-Soil attributes

 Use parametric models: combine regression kriging and mixed-effects=fixed and random
models-account for variations within and between soil classes
 R computer codes developed
 Validation (holdout) and final adjustment

Digital soil map of northwest Somalia

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Source: Digital soil mapping ‘’Ronald Vargas Rojas 01 April 2012’’

There also were different soils mapping techniques developed in different countries in different
ways. For example:

 Soil Mapping with the Soil Inference Model: SoLIM (Axing Xhu, 2012)
 CO-KRIGING AND MIXED EFFECTS MODELS which applied in Bolivia ‘’Digital
Soil Mapping in Bolivia for sugarcane suitability assessment (Vargas, 2010)’’
 Disaggregating polygons (Angelini, 2012) which applied as Digital Soil Mapping in
Argentina.
 Decision tree model 3/5
 Applying model
 Soil Mapping using Area Weighted (USDA, 2012)
 Soil Maps: Disaggregation (NRCS – Jim Thompson Approach: Disaggregation into
component soils or land facets) and etc.

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 5. SUMMARY

Soil classification is the grouping of soils with a similar range of properties (chemical, physical,
and biological) in to units that can be geo-referenced and mapped. Soil mapping is the process of
delineating natural bodies of soils, classifying and grouping the delineated soils in to map units,
and capturing soil property information for interpreting and depicting soil spatial distribution on
a map. Many different approaches have been proposed to come to a sensible grouping of
different soils. Soil classifications were also developed for different purposes. For example: Soil
taxonomy to interpret soil surveys,The FAO legend for representing the global distribution and
geography of soil, WRB to facilitate correlations between different soil classification systems.
Some countries and different institutions have their own soil classification systems. Among the
classification systems the followings can be mentioned. AASHTO soil classification systems,
Australian soil classification, Canadian system of soil classification, French soil classification,
FAO soil classification, International Committee on Anthropogenic soils (ICOMANTH), Unified
soil classification systems, USDA soil classification system, USDA soil taxonomy, World
Reference Base for Soil Resource (WRB), Geology unified soil classification, Universal soil
classification, Numerical systems, Classification based on historical developments that include:
early soil classification systems, recent systems of soil classification, Baldwin and Associate’s
Genetic Approach, and new comprehensive system of soil classification (soil taxonomy). But the
FAO soil classification is the common one. There also were different soils mapping techniques
developed in different countries in different ways. For example: Soil Mapping with the Soil
Inference Model: SoLIM (Axing Xhu, 2012), CO-KRIGING AND MIXED EFFECTS
MODELS which applied in Bolivia ‘’Digital Soil Mapping in Bolivia for sugarcane suitability
assessment (Vargas, 2010)’’, Disaggregating polygons (Angelini, 2012) which applied as Digital
Soil Mapping in Argentina, Decision tree model 3/5, Applying model, Soil Mapping using Area
Weighted (USDA, 2012), Soil Maps: Disaggregation (NRCS – Jim Thompson Approach:
Disaggregation into component soils or land facets) and etc.

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 6. REFERENCES

-AASHTO. 2012. Classification of soils and soil aggregate mixtures for highway construction
purposes. M145 91. American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials.Washington, DC, USA.

-ASTM. 2006. Standard practice for classification of soils for engineering purposes. Unified

-Eric C Brevik, Bradley A. Miller, Costanza Caizolari.(2016) Soil mapping, classification, and
pedologic modeling, History and future directions’’

-FAO soil portal. ‘www.fao.org/soils-portal/data-hub/soil-classification/en/.

-FAO/UNESCO (2021) FAO/UNESCO Soil map of the world.www.fao.org/soils.

Portal/datahub/soil-maps-and-data bases/faounesco-soil-map-of-the=world/en/

-Grade 12th Geography student text book.

-Kenneth Scheffe and Shawn McVey, USDA-NRCS. (2016). Soil mapping concepts.
“https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/ref/?cid.

-Science birect. (2015). Soil classification ‘www.science direct.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-

sciences/soil-classification‘.

-Shreej D. Evolution of soil classification System: 4 Categories. ‘www.soilmanagement

india.com/soil-formation/evolution-of-soil-classification-system-4-categories/1957.

Soil Classification System). D2487. West Conshohocken, PA, USA.

-USDA soil classification system. (2021). Passel 2.unl.edu/view/lesson/2 easfec 8 dd762/2.

-USDA. Natural Resource Conservation Services. United States Department of Agriculture ‘’soil
mapping concepts’’ www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/ref/

-W. Simonson. (1989) Historical Highlights of soil survey and soil classification with Emphasis
on the United States ‘www.isric.org/sites/default/files/ISRIC.TECH pap 18.pdf

-World soil information. (2014) World Reference Base for soil Resources (WRB).
www.isric.org/explore/wrb.

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