ASSESSING THE CHARACTERIZATION OF SOILS IN BUNDA RESEARCH FARM

UNDER DIFFERENT LAND USE MANAGEMENT

BY

NELLIE MAGWERO

130100610

magweronellie@gmail.com

+265 881 739 979

SUPERVISOR

DR LOWOLE

LILONGWE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES

BUNDA COLLEGE CAMPUS

P.O. BOX 219

LILONGWE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE

1.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………3-5
1.1 Background…………………………………………………………………………....3
1.2 Soil profile description………………………………………………………………4
1.3 Soil field properties……………………………………………………………………4
1.3.1 Soil colour……………………………………………………………………….5
1.3.2 Soil texture………………………………………………………………...5
1.3.3 Soil structure………………………………………………………………6
1.3.4 Soil consistence……………………………………………………………6
1.3.5 Soil porosity and root presence……………………………………………7
1.4 Description of each horizon…………………………………………………………...8
2.0 Problem statement and justification…………………………………………………….....5-6
3.0 Objectives and hypothesis…………………………………………………………………6
3.1 Main objective………………………………………………………………………...6
3.2 Specific objectives………………………………………………………………….6
3.3 Hypothesis………………………………………………………………………….6
4.0 Literature review………………………………………………………………………….6-9
4.1 Soil profile description……………………………………………………………6-7
4.2 Description of each horizon………………………………………………………7-9
5.0 Materials and methods…………………………………………………………………….9
5.1 Study area…………………………………………………………………………9-10
5.2 Field analysis………………………………………………………………………10
6.0 Data collection……………………………………………………………………………..10
7.0 Data analysis……………………………………………………………………………….11
8.0 Work plan
9.0 Budget
10.0 Reference……….………………………………………………………………...12-13
1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Soil is the collection of natural bodies on the earth’s surfaces, supporting plants with a lower
limit at the deeper of either the unconsolidated mineral or organic material lying within the zone
of rooting of the native perennial plants; or where horizons impervious to roots have developed,
the upper few feet of the earth’s crust having properties differing from underlying rock material
as a result of interactions between climate, living organisms, parent material, time and relief
(U.S.D.A. 1960).

Soil is composed of four parts which are; soil solution, soil air, soil solids (sand, silt and clay)
and organic matter. All these disperse into each other because they are interconnected, and this
makes the soil to be called the dispersed system. Soil solution, soil air, soil solids (sand, silt and
clay) and organic matter are formed through various processes which are physical and chemical
weathering.

Physical weathering is the mechanical disintegration of rock into small particles without
changing chemical components, while chemical weathering is a process in which rock minerals
conducted in reaction to produce new mineral compound. It has been shown that many soils in
Africa are formed by acid and basic rocks which give rise to soils to differing in chemical and
physical properties. Tropical soils are dominated by kaolinite soils and oxides clays due to
weathering agents as well as parent material which are more of igneous rocks which compose of
the following minerals: basalt, amphibole, biotite mica, muscovite mica, quartz. Hence Malawi is
dominated by these soils because is in this region. During agro-ecological surveys of the
northern and central region of Malawi was found that in areas such as the middle altitude plains,
where other environmental factors such as climate, topography remain less or more uniform, soil
formation is mainly controlled by parent material (Brown and Young 1966).
Therefore when these soils are formed they come together and form layers that are parallel to
the soil surface which are called horizons. The reasons for these are addition of organic matter
from plant growth to the top soil, weathering of rocks and minerals, decomposition of organic
matter, and translocation of soluble components by leaching, which in turn responsible for the
differentiation of soil layers (Foth, 1990). Human management system such as frequent plowing
and tillage for the purpose of cultivation, grazing or similar uses also changes the proportions of
many soil properties with changing depths (McCarthy et al., 2013).

1.2 Soil profile description

The horizons are distinguished by their differences in terms of the soil properties by colour,
hardness, texture, the occurrence of included structures and other tangible properties. The
combination of these horizons makes a profile. Soil profile is a vertical face exposed by
excavating the soil from the soil surface to the parent material (White 2006). This is used to
evaluate and illustrate the soil properties at a particular place (Hodgson 1978). Therefore the soil
to be described it is require to them by having a profile and study each horizon. To describe the
soils involves studying it morphologically, physically, biologically and chemically. In this
research, we are looking at the characteristics of the soils in Bunda field by discussing the
morphological field properties in situ.

Soil morphology is ordinally first observed, described and studied in the field but investigation
continues in the laboratory to analyses the soil samples to described the physical and chemical
properties. Field analysis involves uses five senses (eye, ear, tongue, skin, nose) when observing
the soil properties. Morphology describes and measures a wide range of soil properties, and it
includes as assessment of soil particles and aggregates that provide estimates of soil void
characteristics and hydraulic properties (Lin et al., 1990a, 1999b). It is important to study the
soils in situ because it’s where crop responses to treatments in field experimentation.

1.3 Field soil properties

1.3.1 Soil colour

This involves the use of munsell color chart which determines soil color both dry and wet.
Munsell color chart is a book which identifies color based of three measurable variables; hue,
value and chroma. Hue of a color records its spectral composition for example proportions of
red, yellow, green and blue (Hodgson 1978) A value is a measure of degree darkness or
lightness of the color related to the total amount of light reflected (Boul et al., 2011). Chroma is
a measure of purityof strength of spectral color. These three variables atre presented in a book
called Munsell soil color book and hue is found on each page of the book, value is arranged
vertically on the book while chroma is arranged horizontally on each page. The opposite page
has color symbols and corresponding English names.

1.3.2 Soil texture

It is the relative proportions of the various soil separates in a soil material (Soil Science Society
of America 1996). This is also done on both dry and moist soils and can be done by hand feeling
in the field analysis. Dry soils may be stony, coarse, medium or fine.

1.3.3 Soil structure

These refers to the aggregates of aggregation of individual soil particles into larger units with
planes of weakness between them (Boul et al, 2011). This is observed by using a knife on the
exposed soil profile by penetrating and interfering out volumes of soil while observing material
crumbles into peds.

1.3.4 Soil consistence

This is the general term for describing the behavior of the soil in response to force applied. The
soil show the following characteristics when observing soil consistence; stickiness and plasticity.
Stickiness is the quantity of adhesion of the soil material to other objects while plasticity is the
ability of soil materials to change shape continually under the influence of an applied stress and
retain the impressed shape on removal of the stress. This can be studied on both dry and moist
soils.

1.3.5 Soil porosity

On this root quantity and size in each horizon along with the present vegetation on the site.
Soil .pores are the voids in the soil that are filled with soil solution or soil atmosphere
(Wikipedia). Root or pore quantity and size are observed by measuring the diameter of each root
in each horizon. After that measure the area of the roots in the horizon to show the root quantity.
According to (), it shows that for medium and coarse roots or pores the unit area is 1dm² and for
very coarse roots or pores the unit area is 1m².

2.0 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Little or no detailed information on the soil types because no soil survey has been conducted at
the field.

2.1 JUSTIFICATION

Physical and chemical properties of soil determine the fertility of the soil and in turn these soil
properties affect plant growth. Several studies have been conducted across the globe as to
analyze the chemical and physical characteristics of soil under different land use in order
understand the effects of soil properties on fertility and plant growth. These studies showed that
soils under different land use have different chemical and physical properties which in turn affect
production.

Knowledge of physical and chemical soil properties is very important for appropriate decision
making regarding sustainable land use and management practices in crop production. Therefore,
this study will help in proper decision making regarding soil fertility management and this will
reduce soil nutrient depletion and degradation for a particular area in the country hence high
agricultural production in Malawi.

3.0 OBJECTIVES

3.1 Main objective

To characterize soils of Bunda field both on the forest area and on the cultivated area.

3.2 Specific objectives

 To describe the soil based on the morphological field properties.

 To distinguish soils on the cultivated and forest area.
 To show that soils at different land use systems have different soil properties.
3.3 HYPOTHESIS

H0: Soils in the Bunda field have the same characteristics.

Hα: Soils of Bunda field have different characteristics.

4.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

4.1 Soil profile description

The soils of Malta have 3 soil series and 4 which are complexes or sequences in which a number
of soil series occur in complex and unpredictable pattern. This was based on geological criteria
as was the case in many soil studies at that time. According to Vella, the individual soil series
were defined to incorporate the wide range of soil depth sand textural classes that could be found
on individual geological parent materials.

In India, Bhattacharyya found that all six soils are clayey in texture and non-calcareous
throughout the depth. He dug six pedons whereby was sited on different locations. On pedon 1,
the soils were situated on a moderate slope at a 1021m above sea level, has a solum more than
150m thick with a lithological discontinuity of 60cm depth, and has a clay cutans in the B2t
horizon from 60cm onwards. Pedon 2 has a moderate steep slope at 1004m above sea level, has a
solum 36m thick underlain by the C-horizon of soil mixed with weatherable basalt, clay cutans
are present at 16-36cm depth. Pedon 3, gently sloping depression at 991m above sea level has a
solum more than 300cm thick with as shiny pressure faces from 16cm onwards and has cracks
from surface to subsoil.

According to Lowole 1965, the soil map of Malawi shows that most of the soils found in Malawi
are alluvial soils which associated with wet soils. But in the central region, most of the soils are
ferruginous soils and ferrallitic soils which are high weatherable soils, yellowish-red and most of
the ions are leached. Other soils that are found but it is minimal are lithosols, vertisols, and so
on. He also found that the soils of Chitala experimentation station in Salima are red with fine
textured top soils and red soils with coarse textured top soil after conducting a survey on
properties of some soil types. This concludes that the soils of the area are heterogeneous.
According to FAO 1977, Chapa series are ferruginous soils. They are deep, well drained soils
and are characteristically brown to strong brown in colour with an argilic B containing fairly
large quantities of quartz and ironstone gravel. Structural development is weak and horizonation
ill define.

4.2 Description of each horizon

A soil horizon is a layer generally parallel to the soil crust, whose physical characteristics differ
from the layers above and beneath, (McDonald 1990). Horizons are defined in most cases by
obvious physical features, chiefly color and texture. The differentiation of the soil into distinct
horizons is largely the result of influences of soil forming factors which are climate, relief,
organisms, parent material and time.

According to (Buol et. al 2011), six master or major horizons are designated using the capital
letters O, A, E, B, C and R. These horizons are listed by their position from top to bottom within
the soil profile.

O horizon: This is the top layer dominated by organic material which is made up mostly of leaf
litter and humus (decomposed organic matter). This horizon is thick in soils that have more
organic matter

A horizon: These are mineral horizons that formed at the surface or below an O horizon, in
which all or much of the original rock structure has been obliterated. It is made up of humus
(decomposed organic matter) mixed with mineral particles and is dark in color and this is the
result because of decomposition of plant residues. It also have properties resulting from
cultivation or pasturing that has physically disturbed the horizon. A horizon is also called topsoil
where seeds germinate and plant roots grow, (Murphy et al. (1978).

E horizon: An E horizon is commonly near the surface, below an O or A horizon and above a
B horizon. According to Schoeneberger et al. (2002). This eluviation layer is generally light in
color because most of the minerals and clay particles have been lost due to leaching and
aluminium has a concentrated sand and silt particles of quartz or other resistant minerals.
B horizons: These are horizons that formed below an A, E, or O horizon, and in which the
dominant features are the obliteration of all or much of the original rock structure. The B horizon
is also called the subsoil. This layer contains clay and mineral deposits (like iron, aluminum
oxides, and calcium carbonate) that it receives from layers above it, especially from the E layer,
(Brady et al. 2008). This layer should have strong coloration and the term alluvial is used to
describe soil that has gained deposits from above.

C horizon: It consists of cemented or harder bedrock with little or no alteration by soil forming
factors. This layer lacks properties of the other layers as it occurs with other layers. Plant roots
leave only trace amount s of organic carbon upon their death may be present at widely spaced
intervals in some C horizons.

R horizon: These consist of hard bedrock underlying the soil. Granite, basalt, quartzite and
indurated limestone and sandstone are examples of bedrock that are designated R, (Murphy C.P.
et al. 1978).

Example of horizon description is from the pit of Chapa village. The pit was dug at 50 m deep
and these are the results obtained from A horizon; the thickness was 10 cm and was very dark
greying brown (10YR 3/2) moist and dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) dry, fine sandy loam; weak
to moderate medium and fine crumb; slightly sticky, slightly plastic, very friable moist, slightly
hard dry, many fine and medium interestial pores; many large worm casts on the surface;
abundant fine an few medium roots; clear, smooth boundary; pH 6.4.

4.3 Field soil properties

According to study conducted by Voncir et al., (2006) indicates that the soils were
predominantly sandy in texture with similar morphological characteristics except modified by
other and environmental factors. This lead to the conclusion of that the soils were required to add
fertilizers for economic crop production and organic matter to improve the structure of the soil.

Snapp (1998) conduct a research which finds that the sand content in the center and northern
regions of Malawi are 76%. Average sand content in the southern region was slightly 72%.
These concur with the descriptions of Malawi soils as the generally sandy in texture and well
drained (Brown and Young 1966). He also concluded that the soil structure is good because of
organic carbon levels which more occur in cultivated states.

5.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

5.1 Study area

This study will be carried out at Bunda, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences Research Farm at
Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources (LUANAR) Bunda Campus in
Lilongwe. Bunda lies at Latitude of 140 11S, Longitude of 330 46E and an elevation of 1100m
above sea level.

The area is characterized by a seasonally wet tropical climate with temperatures that are
modified by altitude (MacColl,1990), and a mean annual total rainfall of approximately
1,100mm, which is concentrated in a single rainy season lasting for six months from
November/December to April/May. The natural vegetation comprises miombo woodland
characterized by Brachystegia species with good grazing quality grass and shrubs. The
vegetation is a closed canopy forest and has large broad-leaf. Relative humidity is over 80%
while average annual temperature falls between 18 oC and 27 oC. The soil types vary from clay
loam to sandy loam textural classes (Jones and Kanyama, 1975).

5.2 Field analysis

Pits will be dug in areas of different characteristics, two of them will be on the cultivated soils
while the other two are sited on an uncultivated soils. On the cultivated soils, one will be on the
dark soils while the other one will be on the red soils. On the uncultivated area, one will be
closer to the mountain and the other will be on the forested area which is in the middle of the
area. After that study the morphology field properties follows and then collecting the samples
from each of the horizon for the physical and chemical analysis in the laboratory.

Steps that will be followed in the morphological field analysis are as follows;

1. Demarcate the horizon using the knife. Different characteristics are used for demarcating
them as to distinguish the horizons. These are the characteristics; presence of roots, color
of the soil, hardness.
 2. Thereafter, measure the thickness of the each horizon using tape measure.
3. The next step is the determination of the soil colour by both dry and wet. This will be
done by observing the color using munsell color chart. On the wet soil, soils will be
wetted using bottled water.
4. Another step is the determination of soil texture by using landinfo software.
5. After that, discovering the soil consistence in three ways. These are the following ways;
soils when are dry by observing how hard it is, when the soils are moist and when the
soils are wet.
6. Observing the porosity is another step in field analysis. This will be done by observing
the pores in each horizon, root distribution, percolation of water.

6.0 DATA COLLECTION

On this we will use a guidelines for soil description by FAO (1977). The data will include soil
color, soil texture, soil structure, soil consistence, presence or roots, and porosity.

7.0 DATA ANALYSIS

Using descriptive statistics and discuss the data that will be collected in the field by describing
the field characteristics that are collected in situ.
BUDGET

REQUIREMENT QUANTITY COST PER UNIT AMOUNT

(MKW)
STATIONERY 3,000
(writing material,
papers)
PRINTING AND K30/page 4,500
PHOTOCOPYING K20/page
FIELD 5,000
ASSISTANTS
LABORATORY 8 000
CHEMICALS
FIELD TAPE MEASURE 8,000
EQUIPMENTS AND PLASTIC BAGS
PROTECTIVE 8,000
WEAR (coat &
field gumboots)

TOTAL 36,500
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