17EC81 Wireless Cellular & LTE 4G Broadband: Coorg Institute of Technology

COORG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
17EC81
Wireless Cellular & LTE 4G

Broadband
Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

1
UNIT 1 Module 1
SYLLABUS
Key Enablers for LTE features: OFDM, Single carrier FDMA, Single carrier FDE, Channel
Dependant Multiuser Resource Scheduling, Multiantenna Techniques, IP based Flat
network Architecture, LTE Network Architecture. (Sec 1.4- 1.5 of Text).
Wireless Fundamentals: Cellular concept, Broadband wireless channel (BWC), Fading

in BWC, Modeling BWC – Empirical and Statistical models, Mitigation of Narrow band
and Broadband Fading (Sec 2.2 – 2.7 of Text).
TEXT BOOK: Arunabha Ghosh, Jan Zhang, Jefferey Andrews, Riaz Mohammed,
Fundamentals of LTE, Prentice Hall, Communications Engg. and Emerging Technologies.

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TEXT BOOK

3 Department of ECE
EVOLUTION OF MOBILE COMMUNICTION
• There are 5 cellular system technologies: 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G technology.
FIRST GENERATION (1G) TECHNOLOGY

• 1G refers to the first-generation.
• It uses analog signal to transmit data.
• It was introduced in early 1980’s and designed exclusively for voice communication.
• AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone system) standards were the popular 1G cellular
system.
• 1G data speed is up to 2.4kbps.
Drawbacks
➢ Poor Voice Quality and Poor Battery Life
➢ Large Phone Size and no Security
➢ No data services and no roaming
➢ Cannot transmit for long distance

4 Department of ECE
SECOND GENERATION (2G) TECHNOLOGY
• 2G refers to the second-generation.

• 2G technology uses digital signals for first time.
• It was launched in 1991 and used GSM (Global System for Mobile
communication) standards.
• 2G data speed is up to 64kbps.
• Text(SMS) and multimedia transmission were introduced.
Drawback of 2G:
➢ Limited data rates
➢ It is a circuit switched system
➢ Not supported for true mobility and less security.

5 Department of ECE
THIRD GENERATION (3G) TECHNOLOGY
• 3G refers to third generation.
• 3G technology was introduced in the year 2000s.
• Data transmission speed increased from 170Kbps to 2Mbps.
• 3G Technology uses CDMA -2000 (Code Division Multiple Access) and UMTS
(Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) standards.
• 3G facilitates increased bandwidth and data transfer rates.
• Provides Web-based applications.
• Main characteristics of 3G network is it uses Digital broadband and with more
speed.
Drawback of 3G:
➢ Expensive fees for 3G Licenses Services.
➢ It was a challenge to build the infrastructure for 3G.
➢ High Bandwidth Requirement.
➢ Expensive 3G Phones.

6 Department of ECE
FOURTH GENERATION (4G) TECHNOLOGY
• 4G refers to fourth generation.
• 4G technology was introduced in the year 2004.
• Data transmission speed/ bit rate of 5Mbps to 1000Mbps.
• 4G Technology uses LTE (Long Term Evolution) standards.
• It supports mobile web access, cloud computing, global mobility support and
high definition mobile TV.
• 4G also enable a VOLTE (Voice Over Long Term Evolution) standard for high
speed wireless communication.
FIFTH GENERATION (5G) TECHNOLOGY

• 5G refers to fifth generation.
• 5G was started from late 2010s.
• Complete wireless communication with almost no limitations.
• Aims at higher capacity than current 4G, allowing a higher density of mobile
broadband users.
• Supports interactive multimedia, voice streaming and enhanced security.

7 Department of ECE
KEY ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES AND FEATURES OF LTE
Key Enabling Technologies and Features of LTE are
1. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
2. SC-FDE and SC-FDMA
3. Channel Dependent Multi-user Resource Scheduling
4. Multi-antenna Techniques
5. IP-Based Flat Network Architecture
1. ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (OFDM)

• Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a digital modulation
scheme that uses multiple subcarriers within the same single channel.
• Rather than transmit a high-rate stream of data with a single subcarrier, OFDM
makes use of a large number of closely spaced orthogonal subcarriers that are
transmitted in parallel.
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• Each subcarrier is modulated with a conventional digital modulation scheme at
low symbol rate.
• The OFDM scheme differs from traditional FDM in the following ways:
 Multiple carriers (called subcarriers) carry the information stream
 The subcarriers are orthogonal to each other
 A guard interval is added to each symbol to minimize the channel delay spread
and intersymbol interference.
The following advantages of OFDM led to its selection for LTE

(i) Elegant solution to multipath interference
(ii) Reduced computational complexity
(iii) Graceful degradation of performance under excess delay
(iv) Exploitation of frequency diversity
(v) Enables efficient multi-access scheme

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(vi) Robust against narrowband interference
(vii) Suitable for coherent demodulation
(viii) Facilitates use of MIMO
(ix) Efficient support of broadcast services
Disadvantages of OFDM:
• Peak-to-Average Ratio (PAR): OFDM has high PAR, which causes non-linearity
and clipping distortion when passed through an RF amplifier.
• High PAR increases the cost of the transmitter.
 To overcome this issue, LTE incorporated a power efficient transmission scheme

called Single-Carrier Frequency Domain Equalization (SC-FDE).

10 Department of ECE
2. SC-FDE and SC-FDMA
Single-Carrier Frequency Domain Equalization (SC-FDE)
• It is a single-carrier (SC) modulation combined with frequency-domain

equalization (FDE).
• It uses QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) compared to FFT/IFFT used in
OFDM to send data.
• SC-FDE retains all the advantages of OFDM such as multipath resistance and
low complexity, while having a low peak-to-average ratio of 4-5dB.
• It keeps the mobile station cost down and the battery life up.
• LTE incorporated this modulation for the uplink.
Single-Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access( SC-FDMA)
• SC-FDMA is the multi-user version of SC-FDE.

• This allows multiple users to use parts of the frequency spectrum.

3. CHANNEL DEPENDENT MULTI-USER RESOURCE SCHEDULING
• Resource scheduling is mainly used in OFDM and OFDMA (Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiple Access).
• OFDMA allows allocation in both time and frequency and it is possible to design
algorithms to allocate resources in a flexible and dynamic manner to meet
arbitrary throughput, delay and other requirements.
• The standard supports dynamic, channel-dependent scheduling to enhance
overall system capacity.
• It is possible to allocate subcarriers among users in such a way that the overall
capacity is increased.
4. MULTI-ANTENNA TECHNIQUES
• The LTE standard provides multi-antenna solutions to improve link robustness, system
capacity, and spectral efficiency.

• Multi-antenna techniques supported in LTE include:
 Transmit diversity
 Beam forming
 Spatial multiplexing
 Multi user MIMO
TRANSMIT DIVERSITY- Diversity means send copies of the same signal by using
two or more communication channels with different characteristics.
• This is a technique to prevent multipath fading in the wireless channel.
BEAMFORMING - Multiple antennas in LTE may also use beamforming technique

to transmit the beam in the direction of the receiver and away from interference,
thereby improving the received signal-to-interference ratio.
• This can provide significant improvements in coverage range, capacity,
reliability, and battery life.

SPATIAL MULTIPLEXING -In spatial multiplexing, multiple independent streams can
be transmitted in parallel over multiple antennas and can be separated at the
receiver using multiple receive chains through appropriate signal processing.
• Spatial multiplexing provides data rate and capacity gains proportional to the
number of antennas used.
• LTE standard supports spatial multiplexing with up to four transmits antennas

and four receiver antennas.
MULTI-USER MIMO - Multi-User MIMO (MU-MIMO) allows multiple users with a

single antenna, to transmit using the same frequency and time.
• The signals from the different MU-MIMO users are separated at the base station
receiver using accurate channel state information of each user obtained through
uplink reference signals that are orthogonal between users.

5. IP-BASED FLAT LTE SAE NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
• The main aspect of LTE is the flat radio and core network. Flat implies fewer
nodes and less hierarchical structure for the network which reduces the
infrastructure cost.
• Fewer nodes also allow better optimization of radio interface, merging of some
control plane protocols, and short session start-up time.
• It also means fewer interfaces and protocol-related processing and reduced

inter-operability testing, which lowers the development cost.
• A key aspect of the LTE flat architecture is that all services including voice are
supported on the IP packet network using IP protocols.
• The 3GPP network architecture has evolved over few releases toward the flat
LTE SAE (System Architecture Evolution) architecture.
3GPP evolution toward a flat LTE SAE architecture

Flat LTE SAE architecture description
• 3GPP Release 6 architecture has four network elements in the data path: Base
Station (BS), Radio Network Controller (RNC), Serving GPRS Service Node
(SGSN), and Gateway GRPS Service Node (GGSN).
• Release 7 introduced a direct tunnel option from the RNC to GGSN, which
eliminated SGSN from the data path.
• LTE (Release 8) on the other hand, will have only two network elements in the
data path: the enhanced Node-B (eNode-B) and a System Architecture
Evolution Gateway (SAE-GW). LTE merges the BS and RNC functionality into a
single unit.
• The control path includes a functional entity called the Mobility Management
Entity (MME), which provides control plane functions related to subscriber,
mobility, and session management.

LTE NETWORK ARCHITECTURE (Evolved Packet Core)
• The core network design by 3GPP Release 8 to support LTE is called the Evolved
Packet Core (EPC).
• EPC is designed to provide a high capacity, reduced latency and supports all IPs.
• Flat architecture reduces cost and supports advanced real-time operations.
• Function of LTE architecture includes access control, packet routing and
transfer, mobility management, security, radio resource management and
network management.
The EPC/LTE architecture includes four new elements:

 Serving Gateway (SGW)
 Packet Data Network Gateway (PGW)
 Mobility Management Entity (MME)
 Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF)

1. SERVING GATEWAY (SGW)
• SGW terminates the interface toward the 3GPP radio access networks.
• It acts as an interface between the RAN and core network, and manages user
plane mobility.
• SGW is incorporated in downlink packet buffering and initiation of network-
triggered service request procedures.
2. PACKET DATA NETWORK GATEWAY (PGW)
• It controls IP data services, does routing, allocates IP addresses, enforces policy,

and provides access for non-3GPP access networks.
• The PGW acts as the termination point of the EPC toward other Packet Data
Networks (PDN) such as the Internet, private IP network, or the IMS network.
• It serves as an anchor point for sessions toward external PDN and provides
functions such as user IP address allocation, policy enforcement, packet
filtering, and charging support.

3. MOBILITY MANAGEMENT ENTITY (MME)
• The MME performs the signaling and control functions to manage the user
terminal access to network connections, assignment of network resources.
• MME controls all control plane functions related to subscriber and session
management.
• The MME provides security functions such as providing temporary identities for
user terminals, interacting with Home Subscriber Server (HSS) for authentication,
and integrity of protection algorithms.
4. POLICY AND CHARGING RULES FUNCTION (PCRF)
• It is the combination of Policy Decision Function (PDF) and Charging Rules

Function (CRF).
• The PCRF interfaces with the PDN gateway and supports service data flow
detection, policy enforcement, and flow-based charging.

Wireless Fundamentals
CELLULAR SYSTEM/CELLULAR CONCEPT
• Cellular system is the technology for mobile phones, personal communication
systems, wireless networking etc. The technology is developed for mobile radio
telephone to replace high power transmitter/receiver systems.
• Cellular networks use lower power, shorter range and more transmitters for
data transmission.
• Early wireless systems had a high-power transmitter, covering the entire service
area. This required a very huge amount of power and was not suitable for many
practical reasons.
• The cellular system replaced a large zone with a number of smaller hexagonal
cells with a single BS (base station) covering a fraction of the area.

• The coverage area of cellular networks are divided into cells, each cell having its
own antenna for transmitting the signals.
• Each cell has its own frequencies. Data communication in cellular networks is
served by its base station transmitter, receiver and its control unit.
• A hexagon cell shape is highly recommended for its easy coverage and
calculations.

Features of Cellular Systems/ Frequency planning
 Offer very high capacity in a limited spectrum.

 Allows communications within cell on a given frequency
 Allows re-use of frequencies in nearby cells
 Keep interference levels within tolerable limits.
 Frequency reuse or frequency planning.
 Organization of Wireless Cellular Network.
 By limiting the coverage area to within the boundary of the cell, the channel groups
may be reused to cover different cells.
Frequency planning
• Frequency reusing is the concept of using the same radio frequencies within a
given area, that are separated by considerable distance, with minimal
interference, to establish communication.

• Frequencies can be reused, such that the interference between base stations is
kept to an acceptable level.
• The frequency reuse factor f is defined as f ≤ 1,
• Where f = 1 means that all cells reuse all the frequencies.
• f = 1/3 means frequency is reused by 1 cell out of every 3 cells in a cluster.
Frequency reuse pattern

• Co-cells (or co-channel cells) are cells in cellular system which uses the same
frequency channel set.
• The reuse of the same frequency channels should be intelligently planned in
order to maximize the geographic distance between the co-channel base
stations.
• The groups of cells which are using entire frequency channels set are called
“clusters”.
Hexagonal cellular system with f =1/7.

• The overall system capacity can be increased by making the cells smaller and
turning down the power.
• As the cell size decreases, the transmit power of each base station also
decreases correspondingly.
• For example, if the radius of a cell is reduced by half when the propagation path
loss exponent is 4, the transmit power level of a base station is reduced by 12
dB (=l0log16 dB).
• Since cellular systems support user mobility, call transfer from one cell to
another should be provided.
• When the mobile unit travels along a path it crosses different cells. Each time it
enters into a different cell associated with different frequency, control of the
mobile is taken over by the other base station. This is known as ‘Hand off’.

Advantages of cellular concept
• Small cells give a large capacity advantage and reduce power consumption and
allow frequency reuse.
Drawback of cellular system
• As cell size decreases, the number of cells for the same service area needs
more base stations and their associated hardware costs also increases.
• It leads to frequent handoffs.
• Interference level increases and it affects the service efficiency.

ANALYSIS OF CELLULAR SYSTEM
• The performance of wireless cellular systems is significantly limited by Co-
channel interference (CCI) and other cell interference (OCI) which comes from
other users in the same cell or from other cells.
• The cellular systems performance (capacity, reliability) is measured by SIR
(signal-to-interference ratio) of the desired cell, i.e., the amount of desired
power to the amount of transmitted power.
• The spatial isolation between co-channel cells can be measured by defining the
parameter Z, called co-channel reuse ratio is given by
Where, D = distance between the co-cells

R = radius of the desired cell

Signal to Noise ratio (SNR) of cellular system
• The received SIR depends on the location of each mobile station, and it should be kept
above an appropriate threshold for reliable communication.
• The received SIR at the cell boundaries is of great interest since this corresponds to the
worst interference scenario.

SECTORING
• In cell sectoring a single omni-directional antenna at base station is replaced by
several directional antennas, each radiating within a specified sector.
• By using directional antennas power is transmitted in single desired direction

decreasing number of interfering co-channel cells and co-channel interference.
• The technique for decreasing co-channel interference and thus increasing

system performance by using directional antennas is called sectoring.
• The factor by which the co-channel interference is reduced depends on the

amount of sectoring used. A cell is normally partitioned into three sectors.
• When sectoring is employed, the channels used in a particular cell are broken
down into sectored groups and are used only within a particular sector.

• For cluster size 7, sectoring reduces co-channel cells from 6 to 2 for 120 0 sectoring and to
1 for 600 sectoring.
120° Sectoring and 60° Sectoring
• For 1200 sectoring only two of the six co- channel cells receive interference with a
particular sectored channel group. Considering the mobile located in sector in the centre
cell labelled ‘5’ in the figure (next slide), there are three co-channel sectors labelled ‘5’ to
the right of the centre cell and three to the left of the centre cell. Out of these six co-
channel cells only two have sectors with antenna pattern which radiate into centre cell
hence mobile in centre cell experiences interference from only two sectors.

• This S/I improvement allows the wireless engineers to reduce the cluster size N in order
to improve the frequency reuse and thus the system capacity.
• Since sectoring decreases coverage area for particular group of channels the number of
handoffs also increases. Thus to reduce number of handoffs later microcell zone
concept is implemented.

Advantages of sectoring
• It is an effective and practical approach to overcome the Interference problem.

• Improvement in S/I ratio.
• It is an antenna technique to increase the system capacity.
Drawbacks
• Sectoring increases the number of antennas at each base station, hence it
increases the cost and the number of handoffs increases.
• It increases the overhead due to the increased number of inter sector handoffs.
• It causes inter sector interference as well as power loss.
• Decrease in trunking efficiency due to channel sectoring at the base station.

New Approaches to Other Cell Interference
Following are other approaches to reduces cell interference:
• Use advanced signal processing techniques at the receiver and/or transmitter

as a means of reducing or cancelling the interference.
• Use network-level approaches such as cooperative scheduling or encoding
across Base station.
• Adopt multi-cell power control and distributed antenna technique.
 These network level approaches require relatively little channel knowledge

and effectively reduce other cell interference through macro diversity and
efficient sharing of spectrum.

FADING IN BROADBAND WIRELESS CHANNEL (BWC)
• Fading is variation of the attenuation of a signal with various variables. These
variables include time, geographical position, and radio frequency. Fading is often
modeled as a random process.
• In wireless systems, fading may either be due to multipath propagation, referred

to as multipath-induced fading, weather (particularly rain), or shadowing from
obstacles affecting the wave propagation, sometimes referred to as shadow
fading.
• The presence of reflectors in the environment surrounding a transmitter and

receiver create multiple paths that a transmitted signal can traverse.
• As a result, the receiver sees the superposition of multiple copies of the

transmitted signal, each traversing a different path.

• Each signal copy will experience differences in attenuation, delay and phase
shift while travelling from the source to the receiver.
• Depending on the phase difference between the arriving signals, the

interference can be either constructive or destructive, which causes a very large
observed difference in the amplitude of the received signal even over very
short distances.
The channel may have a few major paths with quite different lengths.

PATH LOSS IN BROADBAND WIRELESS CHANNEL (BWC)
• Path loss is defined as the ratio of the transmit power to the receive power.
• It refers to the attenuation when a signal is transmitted over large distances.
• Wireless signals spread as they propagate through the medium and as the
distance increases, the energy per unit area starts decreasing.
• This is a fundamental loss that is independent of the type of transmitter and

medium.
• Assuming an isotropic antenna is used as shown in figure, the propagated signal

energy expands over a spherical wavefront, so that the energy received at the
antenna with a distance of d away is inversely proportional to the sphere surface
area 4πd2.

The free space path formula or Friis formula is given as
Where Pr = received power, Pt = transmitted power, G is the gain and 𝜆 = wavelength.

And also we know that C = fcλ => λ = C/fc where C is the speed of light.

SHADOWING IN BROADBAND WIRELESS CHANNEL
• In Path loss, distance was the major factor affecting the total received power.
However many factors apart from distance can have a large effect on the total
received power.
• For example, obstacles such as trees and buildings may be located between the
transmitter and receiver and cause temporary degradation in the received signal
strength.
• Since modelling the locations of all objects in every possible communication
environment is generally impossible, the standard method of accounting for
these variations in signal strength is to introduce a random effect called
shadowing. With shadowing the empirical path loss formula given as
Where 𝜒 = sample of the shadowing random process

Hence the received power is now modeled as a random process.

WIRELESS CHANNEL PARAMETERS / BROADBAND FADING PARAMETERS
The key broadband fading parameters to evaluate the wireless channels are:
• Delay Spread and Coherence Bandwidth
• Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
• Angular Spread and Coherence Distance
1. DELAY SPREAD AND COHERENCE BANDWIDTH
• The delay spread is mostly used in the characterization of wireless channels. It

is a measure of the multipath richness of a communications channel.
• The delay spread is the amount of time that elapses between the first arriving
path (typically the line-of sight component) and the last arriving (non-
negligible) path.

• Delay spread can be quantified through different metrics, although the most
common one is the root mean square delay spread (𝜏rms).
• Coherence bandwidth (BC) is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies

over which the channel can be considered flat (i.e., it passes all spectral
components with approximately equal gain and linear phase).
• All frequency components of the transmitted signal within the coherence

bandwidth will fade simultaneously.
• The coherence bandwidth gives a rough measure for the maximum separation
between a frequency f1 and a frequency f2 where the channel frequency
response is correlated. That is:
|f1 − f2| ≤ BC
• The coherence bandwidth is inversely proportional to the delay spread.

2. Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
• Doppler spread (BD) is a measure of the spectral broadening caused by the rate
of change of the mobile radio channel. It is defined as the range of frequencies
over which the received Doppler spectrum is non-zero.
• The Doppler power spectrum is caused by motion between the transmitter

and receiver.
• Coherence time Tc is used to characterize the time varying nature of the

frequency of the channel in the time domain. It is a statistical measure of the
time duration over which the channel impulse response is invariant.
• The coherence time and Doppler spread are also inversely related

3. Angular Spread and Coherence Distance
• Angular Spread and Coherence Distance give the measure of how far the
antennas have to the placed and the antenna angle for signal transmission.
• Angular Spread (θrms) - It refers to the measure of the angle of the arriving
energy. A large 𝜃𝑟𝑚𝑠 implies that channel energy is coming in from many
directions and a small 𝜃𝑟𝑚𝑠 implies that the channel energy is coming in from
only one direction. A large angular spread generally occurs when there is a lot
of local scattering.
• The coherence distance (DC) is the measure of distance between the antenna’s
in the region. An approximate rule of thumb between angular spread and
coherence distance is

MODELING BROADBAND FADING CHANNELS
• In order to design and benchmark wireless communication systems, it is
important to develop channel models that incorporate their variations in time,
frequency, and space.
• The two major classes of models are statistical and empirical models.
Statistical model
• Statistical models are simpler and are useful for analysis and simulations using
mathematical approach.
• These models are used to characterize the amplitude and power of a received
signal r(t) when all the reflections arrive at about the same time.
• This is only true when the symbol time is much greater than the delay spread,
i.e., T >>𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 so these models are often said to be valid for "narrowband
fading channels.

Some of the popular statistical models are:
1. Rayleigh Fading
2. Ricean Distribution
3. Nakagami-m fading
RAYLEIGH FADING
• Rayleigh fading is a model that is used to describe the form of fading that
occurs when multipath propagation exists.
• Rayleigh fading is used when there is many objects in the environment that
scatter the radio signal before it arrives at the receiver.
• The received signal component can be classified as in-phase rI(t) and
quadrature rQ(t) components of r(t) of a Gaussian random variables.
• Rayleigh fading equation is given as

RICEAN DISTRIBUTION (LINE OF SIGHT CHANNELS)
• An important assumption in the Rayleigh fading model is that all the arriving
reflections have a mean of zero.
• In Ricean fading, a strong dominant component is present for example, a line-

of-sight (LOS) path between the transmitter and receiver.
• For a LOS signal, the received envelope distribution is modelled by a Ricean

distribution, which is given by
Where 𝜎 = standard deviation, μ = mean which determines power of LOS and x = value
set.

NAKAGAMI-m FADING (THE GENERAL MODEL)
• It is a general model for wireless channel. The probability density function (PDF)
of Nakagami fading is parameterized by m and given as
• Where m = shape parameter gives as
• If m=0 gives Rayleigh equation and if m=∞ then the received power Pr tends to
be constant.
• Nakagami-m fading is given as

EMPIRICAL CHANNEL MODELS
• Statistical channel models do not take into consideration of specific wireless
propagation environments.
• Modeling of a channel requires the complete knowledge of the surrounding
(ex. Buildings, plants, etc.), time and computational demand. Hence empirical
and semi empirical models were developed.
• Empirical and semi-empirical wireless channel models are the specific models,
which have been developed to accurately estimate the path loss, shadowing,
and small-scale fast fading.
• Empirical model are created by observation and experiment rather than
mathematical aspects.
• These are more complicated but usually represent a specific type of channel
more accurately.
• These models considers the realistic factors such as Angle of Arrival (AoA),
Angle of Departure (AoD), Antenna Array Fashion (AAF), Angle Spread (AS),
and Antenna Array Gain(AAG) pattern and other real time factors.

1. LTE CHANNEL MODELS FOR PATH LOSS
• These models are widely used in modeling the outdoor macro and micro cell
wireless environments.
• These are also referred to as "3GPP" channel models. It provides a measure of
Base Station (BS) to Base Station(BS) distance.
• The BS to BS distance is typically larger tan 3 km for a macro-cell environment
and less than 1 km for an urban micro-cell environment.
• For macro-cell environment, the path loss is given by COST HATA MODEL,
which is given as

• COST Hata model is considered to be accurate when d = 100m to 20 km and 𝑓𝑐
= 1500 to 2000MHz.
• LTE system also operates with below 1500Mhz, for example 700MHz, the
empirical channel model used in such scenarios is the HATA MODEL.

2. LTE CHANNEL MODELS FOR MULTIPATH
• The received signal at the mobile receiver consists of N time-delayed versions
of the transmitted signal.
• The number of paths N ranges from 1 to 20 and is dependent on the specific
channel models. For example, the 3GPP channel model has N = 6 multipath
components.
• M subpaths have random phases and subpath gains.
• For 3GPP, the phases are random variables uniformly distributed from 0 to 360
degrees.
• In the 3GPP channel model, the nth multipath component from the uth
transmit antenna to the sth receive antenna, is given as

3. LTE SEMI-EMPIRICAL CHANNEL MODELS
• Constructing a fully empirical channel model is time-consuming and
computationally expensive due to the huge number of parameters involved.
• Therefore semi-empirical channel models are used which includes practical

parameters in a real wireless system and maintaining the simplicity of statistical
channel models.
• Well-known examples of the simpler multipath channel models include the

3GPP2 Pedestrian A, Pedestrian B, Vehicular A, and Vehicular B models, suited for
low-mobility pedestrian mobile users and higher mobility vehicular mobile users.
• The power delay profile of the channel is determined by the number of multipath
taps and the power and delay of each multipath component.
• The Pedestrian A is a flat fading model corresponding to a single Rayleigh fading

component with a speed of 3 km/hr.

• Pedestrian B model corresponds to a power delay profile with four paths of
delays [0, 0.11, 0.19, 0.41] μs and the power profile given as [1, 0.1071, 0.0120,
0.0052] at 3 km/hr.
• Vehicular A model, the mobile speed is specified at 30 km/hr. Four multipath

components exist, each with delay profile [0, 0.11, 0.19, 0.41] μs and power
profile [1, 0.1071, 0.0120, 0.0052].
• For the vehicular B model, the mobile speed is 30km/h, with six multipath
components, delay profile [0, 0.2, 0.8, 1.2, 2.3, 3.7] μs and power profile [1,
0.813, 0.324 0.158, 0.166, 0.004]. These models are often referred to as Ped A/B
and Veh A/B.
• LTE standard additionally defined extended delay profile with increased multipath
resolution known as Extended Pedestrian A, Extended Vehicular A, and Extended
Typical Urban.

MITIGATION OF NARROW BAND FADING
1. Spatial Diversity
2. Coding and Interleaving
3. Automatic Repeat Request ( ARQ)
4. Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC)
5. Combining Narrowband Diversity Techniques
1. Spatial Diversity
• Diversity is the technique to overcome the fading problems in wireless channels
by improving PER (Packet Error Rate) and BER (Bit Error Rate).
• It is also known as antenna diversity and it usually is achieved by having two or
more antennas at the receiver and/or the transmitter.
• The simplest form of space diversity consists of two receive antennas, where the
stronger of the two signals is selected.
• As long as the antennas are spaced sufficiently, the two received signals will
undergo approximately uncorrelated fading.
2. Coding and Interleaving
• Coding can be used in Error Correction Codes (ECCs), which is also known as
Forward Error Correction (FEC).
• ECCs introduce redundancy at the transmitter to allow the receiver to recover
the input signal even if the received signal is significantly degraded by
attenuation, interference, and noise.
• Coding techniques can be categorized by their coding rate(r) which is the ratio of
information bits to a coding process to the total number of bits created by the
coding process.
• The higher the code rate, the higher percentage of error detection/correction
overhead.
• Higher the coding rate gives higher transmission reliability gain.
• There are 2 main different coding techniques:
Convolution codes & turbo codes.

• Interleaving is a process or methodology to make a system more efficient, fast
and reliable by arranging data in a noncontiguous (random) manner.
• Interleaving is typically used in both convolutional coding and turbo coding. For
use with a conventional convolutional code, the interleaver shuffles coded bits
to provide robustness to burst errors that can be caused by either noise and
interference.
• The interleaver block size is usually used over a single packet data or often much
less than that.
• De-interleaving delays have been one of the primary drawbacks to turbo-coding

since they cause considerable latency.
• Interleaving has proven very effective in allowing ECCs designed for constant,
time-invariant additive noise channels to also work well on fading, time- variant
noisy channels.

Convolution codes
• Convolution encoder Convert any length message to a single codeword.

• Encoder has memory and has dK outputs that at any time depend on CK inputs
and m previous input blocks.
Convolutional encoder defined by LTE for use in the Broadcast Channel (BCH).
• The constraint length of this code is 7, there are 6 delay elements or 64 possible states.
• The generator polynomial G which consist of the generators Gi for each 3 outputs in
octal notation.

Turbo Codes
• It class of high-performance Forward Error Correction (FEC) codes. It is built
using two identical convolutional codes of special type, such as, Recursive
Systematic (RSC) type with parallel concatenation.
• Turbo code provides flexibility and has an ability to recover quickly from
errors through iterative decoding.

3. AUTOMATIC REPEAT REQUEST (ARQ)
• LTE uses ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request) and Hybrid-ARQ (H-ARQ) technique
for flow and error control.
• ARQ is used in MAC layer retransmission protocol that allows large packets to be
quickly retransmitted.
• These protocol works with physical layer ECCs and parity checks to ensure
reliable links in channels.
• Since a single bit error causes an error in the entire packet, with ARQ the entire
packet must be retransmitted even when nearly all of the bits already received
were correct, which is clearly inefficient.
• Hybrid-ARQ combines the two concepts of ARQ and FEC (Forward Error
Correction) to avoid such waste, by combining received packets.
• After transmitting the encoded and punctured bits, the transmitter waits for an
acknowledgment from the receiver telling it whether the receiver was able to
successfully decode the information bits from the transmission.

AUTOMATIC REPEAT REQUEST (ARQ)

4. ADAPTIVE MODULATION AND CODING (AMC)
• LTE systems employ Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC) in order to reduce
fluctuations in the channel over time and frequency.
The basic idea of AMC:

 Transmit at a high data rate when the channel is good.
 Transmit at a lower rate when the channel is poor in order to avoid excessive
dropped packets.
 Lower data rates are achieved by using a small constellation such as QPSK and
low rate error correcting codes such as rate 1/3 turbo codes.
 The higher data rates are achieved with large constellations such as 64QAM and
less robust error correcting codes.
• To perform AMC, the transmitter must have some knowledge of the

instantaneous channel gain.

Adaptive modulation and coding block diagram
• The goal of the transmitter is to transmit data from its queue as rapidly as
possible, subject to the data being demodulated and decoded reliably at the
receiver.
• Feedback is critical for adaptive modulation and coding since the transmitter
needs to know the "channel SINR".

MITIGATION OF BROADBAND BAND FADING
1. Spread Spectrum and RAKE Receivers
2. Equalization
3. Multicarrier Modulation: OFDM
4. Single-Carrier Modulation with Frequency Domain Equalization
1. SPREAD SPECTRUM AND RAKE RECEIVERS

• RAKE receiver is used to counter the effect of multipath fading.
• Spread spectrum techniques are generally classified into two different
categories:
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum(DSSS): It also known as Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA), is used widely in cellular voice networks and is effective at
multiplexing a large number of variable rate users in a cellular environment.
 Frequency hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS): Frequency hopping is used in low-
rate wireless LANs like Bluetooth, and also for its interference averaging
properties in GSM cellular networks.
2. EQUALIZATION
• Equalizers are a technique which is used to suppress ISI without the use of
additional bandwidth or antennas.
• Equalizers are implemented at the receiver, and attempt to reverse the
distortion introduced by the channel.
• Equalizers are classified into two classes: linear and decision-directed
(nonlinear).
Linear Equalizers
• In linear equalizer, the received signal is passed through a digital filter which
generally uses FIR filer.
• The problem with this approach is that it inverts not only the channel, but also
the received noise. This noise enhancement can severely degrade the receiver
performance, especially in a wireless channel with deep frequency fades.
• Linear receivers are relatively simple to implement, but achieve poor
performance in a time-varying and severe-ISI channel.
Nonlinear Equalizers
• A nonlinear equalizer uses previous symbol decisions made by the receiver to

cancel out their subsequent interference, and so is often called a Decision
Feedback Equalizers (DFE).
• Problem with this approach is that it is common to make mistakes about what the
prior symbols were (especially at low SNR), which causes error propagation and is
a time consuming approach due to feedback.
• Nonlinear equalizers increase the computational complexity.

3. MULTICARRIER MODULATION: OFDM
• Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a digital modulation
scheme that uses multiple subcarriers within the same single channel.
• Rather than transmit a high-rate stream of data with a single subcarrier, OFDM
makes use of a large number of closely spaced orthogonal subcarriers that are
transmitted in parallel.
• Multicarrier modulation is used to fight against the time-dispersive ISI channel.
• For a large number of subcarriers (L) are used in parallel, so that the symbol time
for each goes from T to LT.
• In Multicarrier system, rather than sending a single signal with data rate R and
bandwidth B, L signals at the same time can be sent, each having bandwidth B/L
and data rate R/L.
• If B/L ≪ Bc, each of the signals will undergo approximately flat fading and the
time dispersion for each signal will be negligible.
• As long as the number of subcarriers L is large enough, the condition B/L ≪ Bc,
can be met.

4. SINGLE-CARRIER MODULATION WITH FREQUENCY DOMAIN EQUALIZATION (SC-
FDE)
• A primary drawback of the OFDM approach has a high Peak-to-Average Ratio
(PAR).
• The dynamic range of the transmit power is too large, which results in either
significant clipping or distortion, or in a requirement for highly linear power
amplifier.
• FDE uses Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) to move the signal into the frequency
domain, a 1-tap frequency equalizer (just like in OFDM), and then an Inverse FFT
(IFFT) to convert back to the time domain for decoding and detection.
• In LTE resulting approach is known as Single-Carrier Frequency Division Multiple

Access(SC-FDMA).


17EC81 Wireless Cellular & LTE 4G Broadband: Coorg Institute of Technology

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COORG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Wireless Cellular & LTE 4G

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

Wireless Fundamentals: Cellular concept, Broadband wireless channel (BWC), Fading

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

FIRST GENERATION (1G) TECHNOLOGY

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

• 2G refers to the second-generation.

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

FIFTH GENERATION (5G) TECHNOLOGY

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

1. ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (OFDM)

The following advantages of OFDM led to its selection for LTE

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

 To overcome this issue, LTE incorporated a power efficient transmission scheme

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

• It is a single-carrier (SC) modulation combined with frequency-domain

Single-Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access( SC-FDMA)

• SC-FDMA is the multi-user version of SC-FDE.

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

BEAMFORMING - Multiple antennas in LTE may also use beamforming technique

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

• LTE standard supports spatial multiplexing with up to four transmits antennas

MULTI-USER MIMO - Multi-User MIMO (MU-MIMO) allows multiple users with a

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

• It also means fewer interfaces and protocol-related processing and reduced

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

The EPC/LTE architecture includes four new elements:

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

2. PACKET DATA NETWORK GATEWAY (PGW)

• It controls IP data services, does routing, allocates IP addresses, enforces policy,

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

4. POLICY AND CHARGING RULES FUNCTION (PCRF)

• It is the combination of Policy Decision Function (PDF) and Charging Rules

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

 Offer very high capacity in a limited spectrum.

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

Frequency reuse pattern

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

Hexagonal cellular system with f =1/7.

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

Drawback of cellular system

• It leads to frequent handoffs.

• Interference level increases and it affects the service efficiency.

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

Where, D = distance between the co-cells

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

• By using directional antennas power is transmitted in single desired direction

• The technique for decreasing co-channel interference and thus increasing

• The factor by which the co-channel interference is reduced depends on the

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

120° Sectoring and 60° Sectoring

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar

Dr. Navaneeth Bhaskar