BIRLA VISHVAKARMA

MAHAVIDYALAYA

Subject- Power system 2

Subject code- 3EE11
Faculty- Ajay Patel sir
POWER FLOW ANALYSIS
GROUP - 1
1. 18EE023 - Dhruv Pokar 1. 18EE040 - Mihir Detroja
2. 18EE024 - Prince Patel 2. 18EE41 - Yuvraj Jadav
3. 18EE026 - Krupen Parekh 3. 18EE042 - Vishal Gohil
4. 18EE029 - Nehant Maskar 4. 18EE046 - Rahul Suthar
5. 18EE033 - Mihir Solanki 5. 18EE052 - Vishal Nakrani
6. 18EE034 - Kuldeep Vadher 6. 18EE053 - Sohil Zapadiya
7. 18EE039 - Vismay Thakker 7. 18EE056 - Hardik Kanjariya
 Introduction
• The load flow study in a power system constitutes a study of paramount
importance.
• The load flow study also provides information about the line and transformer
loads(as well as losses) throughout the system and voltages at different points
in the system.
• A bus is a node at which one or many lines, one or many loads and generators
are connected.
• The buses are classified as P-Q(load bus),P-V(generator or voltage controlled
bus) and V-Q(slack bus).
• The bus is indicated by a vertical line at which several components are
connected.
 Bus Admittance Matrix
• A power system consists of a large number of buses interconnected through
transmission lines.
• Consider the simple 4-bus system of Fig.(a).
• SGi denotes the 3-phase complex generator power flowing into the ith bus and
SLi denotes the 3-phase complex load power flowing out of the ith bus.
SGi = PGi + jQGi (1a)
SLi = PLi + jQLi (1b)

• where P and Q denotes real and reactive power. At each bus the generator and
load power can be combined so that the net 3-phase complex power
flowing into ith bus can be written as:
 Si = SGi – SLi = (PGi – PLi) + j(QGi – Q Li) = Pi + jQi (2)

• Figure (b) shows the equivalent circuit of the network of figure(a).

• The equivalent circuit of fig.(b) has been redrawn in fig.(c).
• Since the system has 4 buses,the number of nodes(m) is 5.
• denotes the admittance of ith node with respect to reference, denotes
admittance between ith and pth nodes and denotes voltage of ith node.
• Assume that there is no mutual coupling between the lines.
• As per kirchhoff’s current law four nodes of fig.(c) gives following
equations:

I1 = V1y10 + (V1 – V2)y12 + (V1 – V3)y13 + (V1 – V4)y14

I2 = V2y20 + (V2 – V1)y12 + (V2 – V3)y23
I3 = V3y30 + (V3 – V1)y13 + (V3 – V2)y23 + (V4 – V4)y34
I4 = V4y40 + (V4 – V1)y14 + (V4 – V3)y34 (3)
Equation (3) can be re-arranged and written in matrix form as:

(4)
Equation (4) can be written as:
 

where (5a)
Y11 = y10 + y12 + y13 + y14
Y22 = y20 + y12 + y32
Y33 = y30 + y13 + y23 + y34
Y44 = y40 + y14 + y34
Y12 = Y21 = -y12
Y13 = Y31 = -y13
Y14 = Y41 = -y14
Y23 = Y32 = -y23
Y34 = Y43 = -y34
Eq. (5a) can be written in compact form as:

Ibus = [Ybus] Vbus (5b)

For an n bus system Ibus is an n×1 vector with general entry Ii , Vbus is an n×1 vector
with general entry Vi

[Ybus] is an n×n matrix with entries

Yii = short circuit driving point admittance at ith node

Yip = short circuit transfer admittance between ith and pth nodes

[Ybus] is known as bus admittance matrix

Eq. (5b) can also be written as:

Vbus = [Zbus] Ibus (6)

Where Zbus = Y-1bus
 Formation of Ybus using step by step method:

• The following step by step procedure is very suitable.

• We start with [Ybus] array initially set to zero.
• The dimensions of [Ybus] is n×n where n is the number of buses.
• Consider an element having admittance yip connected between buses i
and p. Four entries in [Ybus] are affected : Yii,Yip,Ypi,Ypp.

We modify these entries as under:

Yii, new = Yii, old + yip (7a)

Yip, new = Yip, old - yip (7b)
Ypi, new = Ypi, old – yip (7c)
Ypp, new = Ypp, old + yip (7d)

• We add the elements one by one and modify the entries of [Ybus] as per
eq.(7).
• If an element is connected from ith bus to reference, only entry is
 Formation of Ybus and Z bus
[Using Singular Transformation]

We have to understand Graph theory first.

● Graph : A diagram of a network represented by only lines. [Fig. 1]
● Tree : The element of a graph which has number of branches to connect
all the nodes without forming a closed path. [Fig. 2]
● Co-Tree : The element of a graph which are not in tree. And form a sub-
graph. [Fig. 3]
 Fig. 2
Fig. 1

Fig. 3
Primitive Network
Any network consists many branch having active and/or passive element in
it.
Like Fig. 4(a),(b)

Fig. Fig. 4(b)

4(a)
Performance Equation from these figures will be,
Vip+Eip= zipIip

Iip+Jip= yipVip

Jip= yipEip

yip= 1/zip

We can write these equation

in Impedance form.
V+E += zI
And in impedance form
I+J = yV
Bus Incidence Matrix
The bus incidence matrix depicts the
incidence of elements to the buses in the
graph of a network.

The graph of Fig. 1 have 9 branch voltages

can be written as
Formulation of Ybus and Zbus

We have obtained the equation,

I+J = yAVbus
Multiplying A’ both the sides
A’I + A’J = A’yAvbus
Since A’I = 0 and A’J = Ibus
Therefore,
Ibus = A’yAVbus
So we will obtain
[Ybus] = A’yA
As mention earlier Zbus is the inverse of Ybus
 INCUSION OF MUTUALLY
COUPLED BRANCHES IN Ybus

Transmission lines run in Different direction from different

from various buses in a power system.
In general do not have mutual coupling with each other.
Nevertheless one or two lines in the total system may have
some mutual coupling with another one or two lines.
It is necessary to include the effect of such mutual coupling for correct evaluation of
system performance.
The easiest approach of the formation of Ybus in a system hving mutually coupled
branches is the use of singular transformation.i.e.,(Ybus)=A’yA is valid in this case also
however, the primitive admitive matrix should be properly formulated by including the
mutual coupling.
Fig 10.9 shows two branches having self impedance matrix
Za and Zb mutually coupled through impedance Zm, KVL equations are
The matrix formed by Za, Zb and Zm is the primitive impedance matrix of the
system of figure 10.9.
Where the matrix formed by Ya, Yb and Ym in the primitive admittance matrix.
Thus,
The primitive admitive matrix Y is the inverse of primitive impedance matrix Z.
Thus,
LOAD FLOW EQUATIONS AND METHODS
OF SOLUTION
The complex power injected into ith bus is
Equation 10.24(a) and (b) are known as static load flow equations.
These equations are non-linear and, therefore only a numerical solution is
possible. For each of the n system buses we have two such equations giving a
total of 2n equations and total 4n variables.
APPROXIMATE LOAD FLOW STUDY
A simple but approximate solution is possible if the following
asumptions are made in load flow analysis.

(1). Line resistance are neglected which means that the active power
loss in the lines is zero. This reduces the complexity of equation
because the total active power generation become equal to the total
active power demand.
(2) The angle 𝛿i is small so that sin𝛿i=𝛿I, that approximation converts
the non linearload flow equation into linear ones so that analytical
solution is possible.

(3). All buses except the swing bus are voltage controlled buses.this
means that the voltages of all the buses are specified.

MODIFIED EQUATIONS FOR ABOVE ASSUMPTION :

The only unknows are angle 𝛿 for slack bus 𝛿i=0 THUS, We have n-1
linear equation which the value of 𝛿 at all can be found.
GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD-SOLUTION OF
ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS
A simultaneous non linear algebraic equatins cannot be solved the usul
method for the solution of these equation iterative techniques are necessary

system of n non linear equation having x1,x2….xn as n unknowns

 

we start with initial unknown approximate values of x’s as our first

equation for
the first approximation x2 is

and the first approximation For x1 is

In general kth Approximation x1 is computed as:

We Exmine Change in each variable

When ∆xi< ε For i= 1,2,3..... n,. We say That the solution

Coveraged .
The number of iterations required to coveragence Can be
reduced if we update Old value Something more ∆xi we use
equation

α is Unknown acceleration Factor & his value

equal & greater than unity.
Gauss Seidel Method for Load Flow Studies:

Advantages of this method are:

• The simplicity of technique.
• Small Computer memory requirement.
• Less computational time per iteration.
Disadvantages of this method are:
• Slow rate of convergence.
• Increment in buses will directly increase no. of iterations.
• Effect on convergence due to choice of slack bus.
Due to this disadvantages GS method is only used for system having small number
of buses.
GS method when PV buses are absent:
• We start the discussion of G-S algorithm for a system in which voltage controlled buses are absent. This
implies that out of the n buses, one bus is slack bus and the remaining n - 1 buses are P-Q buses. Initially we
assume the magnitudes and angles at these n - 1 buses and update these voltages at every step of iteration.
• Since bus I is the slack bus, Eq. (10.32) represents a set of n-1 equations, for i =2, 3,... n, which are to be
solved simultaneously for V2, V3, ... Vn. The voltages and admittances in these equations are complex
quantities. In most of the computers the complex number operations are available.
• In order to save computer time it is more appropriate to write Eq. (10.32) in the following form:

• The values of Ki and Lip are computed once in the beginning and then used in every iteration.
• It is necessary to assume initial values of V2, V3, ... Vn. We know that the voltages at different buses in a
power system are close to 1 PU. Therefore, we assume V2, V3, ... Vn to be 1+ j0 initially. At every step of
iteration we use the most updated values of the bus voltages to compute the new values of the bus voltages.
When (k+ 1)th iteration is being performed to calculate Vi, the most updated values of the bus voltages are
the values obtained in (k+1)th iteration for all buses previous to ith bus (i.e., for p = 1,2... i-1) and the values
obtained in kth iteration for ith bus and the buses after the ith bus (i.e., for p= i, i+1 ... n). In view of this
observation Eq. (10.33) can be written as under for the (k+1) iteration

• The iterative process is continued till the changes in the bus voltages in the successive iterations become less
than a certain pre-specified tolerance level for all buses, i.e.,

• To reduce the number of iterations, an acceleration factor ‘a’ can be used. a=1.6 is considered to be a good
value for load flow studies.
• When all bus voltages have been determined S, is obtained from Eq. (10.22b) and then conjugate of S', gives
Si.
• The final step in load flow study is the calculation of line flows. A line connecting ith and pth buses. The line
is represented by a ‘pi' circuit. The current I and complex power S can be found as

• Similarly, the power fed by pth bus into the line connecting pth and ith buses is
 
• Thus, power flow over all the lines can be computed.
• The power loss in the line connecting ith and pth buses is given by S +S and the total transmission loss is the
sum of losses over all the lines.
Modification of GS method when PV buses are present:

• Some of the buses in a power system are voltage controlled buses where P and V are specified and Q and
'delta' are unknowns. It is necessary to modify the above computational procedure. Let the buses be
numbered as
• i= 1 slack bus
• i= 2, 3, ... m PV or voltage controlled buses
• i= m+1, m+2, ...n PQ buses
• For the voltage controlled buses, the bus voltage must be equal to the specified voltage |V|. Moreover the
maximum and minimum reactive powers at these buses are also specified and the value of Q, (for i=2,3 ... m)
must lie between these limits. Thus, the conditions to be met with are
• The second requirement may be violated if the specified bus voltage |V| is either too high or too low. It is to
be noted that it is possible to control |V| only by controlling Q. If during any iteration we find that Q is
outside the limits specified, Q is fixed at the minimum or the maximum value as the case may be and then
that bus is treated as a PQ bus. In view of these observations the procedure of calculation for PV buses is as
under:
(a) Calculate Q using Eq. (10.24b) which is reproduced below

• At the start of (k + 1)th iteration, |V| , i.e., the magnitude of V obtained during kth iteration may not
necessarily be equal to |V|. We save this value of V.

• The values of |V| and 'delta' to be used in Eq. (10.39) are those obtained during (k + 1)th iteration (for p =1
to i-1) and those obtained during kth iteration (for p=i to n). Moreover for every iteration |V| must be set
equal to |V|. In view of this Eq. (10.38) can be written as:
(b) Check Qi to see if it is within limits, i.e., Qi,min <Qi <Qi,max. If so calculate new value of K, and then use Eq.
(10.34) to compute V using |V| and 'delta' for the magnitude and phase angle of V. Reset |V| to |V|, but retain
the phase angle ‘delta’ and continue to the next bus.
• If Qi> Qi,max, set Qi = Qi,max, find new value of K and treat the ith bus as PQ bus and continue the computations
as in section (10.9.1). Similarly, if Qi< Qi,min, set Qi = Qi,min, find new value of K and treat the ith bus as PQ bus
and continue the computations as in section (10.9.1).
• Newton Raphson
Method
• Newton Raphson method is used to solve a system of non linear algebraic equations of the
form f(x)=0
• Now consider a set of n non linear algebraic equation given by
fi(x1,x2,…….,xn)= 0
(1)
Where i= 1,2,3,……,n
• Let X10,x20,……..xn0
be the initial guess of unknown variab
• Δx10, Δx20,…….. Δxn0
be the respective correction therefore,
f (x 0+ Δx 0,x 0+ Δx 0,…….,x 0+ Δx 0)= 0 i=0,1,2,…..n (2)
•  Now expand above equation using Taylor’s series

• fi(x10,x20,…….,xn0)+[(∂fi/∂x1) 0*Δx10+(∂fi/∂x2)*Δx20+………+(∂fi/∂xn) * Δxn0]

+ Higher order terms = 0 ∀ i=(1,2,……,n) (3)
• Where (∂fi/∂x1)0,(∂fi/∂x2)0,……….,(∂fi/∂xn)0

• are partial derivatives of fi With respect to x1,x2,…….,xn

• If the higher order terms are neglected then equation 3 can be written in matrix form

•
(4)
• In vector form equation 4 can be written as
F0+J0ΔX0 = 0

Or F0 = - J0ΔX0

Or ΔX0 = -[ J0]-1F0 (5)

And X1 = X0 + ΔX0 (6)

 Load Flow Computation In Large System

(a) Sparsity: In a large power systems each bus is connected to only a small number of
other buses (may be two or three). So, bus admittance matrix of a large power system is
very sparse (i.e., it has a large number of zero elements). The sparsity feature of Y bus
matrix extends to Jacobian matrix also. The sparsity of an n×n matrix is defined as

Sparsity = × 100

In a large power system sparsity may be as high as 97%. It may be noted that through Y bus
is sparse, Zbus is full.

Modern load flow studies take advantages of sparsity to reduce computer memory
requirement and save computer time.
(b) Compact storage scheme
In a compact storage scheme only non-zero elements are stored and it is ensured that full
position identification can take place. Consider a sparse matrix

YBUS=

We define two vectors,

YDIAG = [20, 12, 17, 18, 16, 9]
YOFFD = [-12, -8, -12, -10, -7, -8, -10, -7, -9, -9]
The vector YDIAG contains the diagonal elements while vector YOFFD contains the off
diagonal elements of . To position the elements in YOFFD, we define two more vectors
JROW = [1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10]
JCOL = [2, 4, 1, 4, 5, 1, 3, 3, 6, 5]
Continue…
The vector JROW identifies the start of different rows in the vector YOFFD, e.g., first row
starts with off diagonal element -12 which is first elements in YOFFD, second row starts
with -12 which is the third elements in YOFFD, fourth row starts with -8 which is sixth
elements in YOFFD and so on.

The vector JCOL identifies the column position of each elements in the vector YOFFD,
e.g., the elements -12 is in second column, -8 is in the fourth column. -12 is in the first
column, -10 is in fourth column and so on.
(c) Gauss elimination, Triangular factorization
The load flow solution requires obtaining inverse of a matrix. When a matrix is sparse,
the matrix inversion is a very inefficient approach.

Instead, it is better to use Gauss elimination which is uses triangular factorization and
back substitution. In triangularization the off diagonal elements in each row below the
main diagonal are made zero and the diagonal elements of each row is normalized as
soon as the processing of that row is completed.
After triangularization it is easy to obtain the solution by back substitution.

Let, The equation is,

Continue…
Step 1 : Divide the elements of first row by a11 (i.e., 18.002). The result is

Step 2 : Divide the elements of third row by a21 (i.e., -8.868) and subtract it from first row.
The result is

Step 3 : Divide the elements of third row by a31 (i.e., 2.096) and subtract it from first row.
The result is
Continue…
Step 4 : Divide the elements of second row by the new value of a22 (i.e., 1.5074). The result
is

Step 5 : Divide the elements of third row by new value of a32 (i.e., 1.5074) and substact it
from second row. The result is

Step 6 : The triangularization is now complete. From the last equation

Continue…
On the back substitution of this value in second equation we get,
On the back substitution of this value in first equation we get,

Here, we have processing by rows for elimination. It is also possible to process by

column. However, the processing by rows leads to lesser computer memory requirement
and more coeffient computation.
(d) Optimal ordering
Optimal ordering leads to saving in computer memory and time.
Some schemes for optimal ordering are:
(1)Number the rows starting with that having the least non-zero terms and ending with one
having the most non-zero terms,
(2)Number the rows at each step of elimination such the row to be eliminated is the one
having the fewest nom-zero terms.
(3)Number the rows at each step so that the next row to be eliminated introduces fewest
new non-zero terms.
THANK YOU