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Institute of Technology
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Computer Aided Power System Analysis(CAPA)
Chapter 2 Load/Power Flow Analysis
By Dawit Adane
Load Flow Analysis
For a given power network, with known complex power loads and some set of
specifications or restrictions on power generations and voltages, solve for any unknown
bus voltages and unspecified generation and finally for the complex power flow in the
network components.
Assumes balanced three phase system
Modeled as a single phase system (based on single line diagram)
A set of non-linear differential equations model both the Real (watts) and Reactive
(Vars) power flow
Matrices are developed for all impedances/admittances of transmission lines
interconnecting substations (buses)
Non-linear equations are solved through an iterative process, with an assumed initial
conditions
The behavior of the LF solution is often influenced by the bus chosen.
Importance of load-flow studies
• Great importance of power flow or load-flow studies is in the planning the future
expansion of power systems as well as in determining the best operation of existing
systems.
• Applications:
1. On-line analyses
• State estimation
• Security
• Economic analyses
2. Off-line analyses
• Operation analyses
• Planning analyses
Network expansion planning
Power exchange planning
Security and adequacy analyses
-Faults
-Stability
Modeling of power system components
Loads
• can be classified into three categories of model;
i) constant power, 𝑃𝑝 = 𝐼2𝑅 ∝ 𝑉0 (𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒)
ii) constant impedance, 𝑃𝑌 = 𝑉2/𝑅 ∝ 𝑉2 (𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒)
iii) constant current, 𝑃𝐼 = 𝐼𝑉 ∝ 𝑉1 (𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒).
• To compute the AC power flow analysis under the normal steady-state values of the
bus voltages, the loads are always represented as constant power loads at a particular
time instant.
Transmission line
• The transmission lines are generally of medium length or of long length.
• A medium and long length lines are always represented by the nominal- model and the
equivalent- model respectively as shown in figure below.
Normal model of a medium line connected between buses ‘i’ and ‘j’
Equivalent model of a long transmission line connected between buses ‘i’ and ‘j’
Transformer
• The exciting current of the transformer is neglected.
• A two winding transformer, with tap ratio is 1:1, is represented by its per unit leakage
impedance as shown in figure below.
For a regulating transformer with transformation ratio 1:t or a:1, the equivalent circuit of the
transformer is shown in figures below. y is the per unit admittance of the transformer.
Where,
IBUS = [I1, I2, …, I5]T (5 × 1) is the vector of bus injection currents
VBUS = [V1, V2, …, V5]T (5 × 1) is the vector of bus voltages measured with respect
to the ground
YBUS (5 × 5) is the bus admittance matrix
• From the elements of the YBUS it can be observed that for i = 1, 2, …, 5;
Yii = sum total of all the admittances connected at bus ‘i’ called Self driving
admittance – diagonal elements
Yij = negative of the admittance connected between bus ‘i’ & ‘j’ (if these two buses are
physically connected with each other) called Mutual driving admittance – off-diagonal
element
Yij = 0; if there is no physical connection between buses ‘i’ and ‘j’
• Similarly, for a ‘n’ bus power system, where,
IBUS = [I1, I2, …, In]T (n × 1) is the vector of bus injection currents
VBUS = [V1, V2, …, Vn]T (n × 1) is the vector of bus voltages
YBUS (n × n) is the bus admittance matrix
Read about the Formation of YBUS matrix in the presence of mutually coupled elements
Basic Power Flow Equation
• For a ‘n’ bus system,
Or,
Now, ; ;
• Hence,
Or,
Hence,
[ ]
𝐧
𝟏 𝐢 𝐏 − 𝐣 𝐐
𝐕 𝐢= 𝐢
− ∑ 𝐘 𝐢𝐤 𝐕 𝐤
𝐘 𝐢𝐢 𝐕 𝐢∗
𝐤 =𝟏, ≠ 𝐢
Initialization and Stopping Criteria
Initialization of the Voltage
All the unknown bus voltage are initialized to 1.0∟00 p.u (i.e., Vj(0) = 1.0∟00 for j = 2, 3, …, n).
This process of initializing all bus voltage to 1.0∟00 pu is called flat voltage start (because of
the uniform voltage profile assumed). V2(0) = V3(0) = … =Vn(0) = 1.0∟00 = 1.0 + j0
Stopping Criteria (Convergence)
The iterative process must be continued until either
1. The iteration count reached maximum iteration count number limit, NUM = NUM max
2. The magnitude of change of bus voltage between two consecutive iteration is less than or
equal to a certain tolerance limit, ε for all bus voltages.
max|Vi(k+1) ‒ Vi(k)| ≤ ε; Ɐ i = 2, 3, …, n.
Acceleration of convergence
The number of iterations can be reduced if the iteration at each bus is accelerated, by
multiplying with a constant α, called the acceleration factor. In the (k+1) st iteration we can let
where α is a real number b/n 1 < ɑ < 2. α is taken between 1.2 to 1.6, for GS load flow
procedure.
Case (a): Systems with PQ buses only:
Initially assume all buses to be PQ type buses, except the slack bus. This means that (n–1)
complex bus voltages have to be determined. For ease of programming, the slack bus is
generally numbered as bus-1.
Algorithm for GS method
1. Prepare data for the given system as required.
2. Formulate the bus admittance matrix YBUS. This is generally done by the rule of
inspection.
3. Assume initial voltages for all buses, 2, 3, …, n. In practical power systems, the
magnitude of the bus voltages is close to 1.0 p.u. Hence, the complex bus voltages at
all (n-1) buses (except slack bus) are taken to be 1.0 00. This is normally referred as
the flat start solution.
4. Set iteration count k = 1.
5. Update the bus voltages as;
Or, in any (k + 1) st iteration, the voltages are given by
Here note that when computation is carried out for bus-i, updated values are already
available for buses 2,3, …, (i-1) in the current (k+1)st iteration. Hence these values are
used. For buses (i+1), ..., n, values from previous, kth iteration are used.
6. Continue iterations till
Where, ε is the tolerance limit. Generally, it is customary to use a value of 0.0001 pu.
7. Compute slack bus power after voltages have converged. [assuming bus 1 is slack bus].
9. The complex power loss in the line is given by S ik + Ski. The total loss in the system is
calculated by summing the loss over all the lines.
Case (b): Systems with PV buses also present:
For a system having multiple generators, the bus voltage initialization is carried out in a two
step procedure;
i) The load buses are initialized with flat start (i.e. V j(0) = 1.000 for j = (m+ 1), (m+ 2), …, n)
and
ii) The magnitudes of the voltages of the PV buses are initialized with the corresponding
specified voltage magnitudes while initializing all these voltage angles to 0 0 (i.e. Vj(0) = Vjsp00
for j = 2, 3, …, m, where Vjsp is the specified bus voltage magnitude of the jth generator).
The reactive power supplied or absorbed by a generator (QG) is calculated by the load flow
procedure. However, any generator has a maximum and minimum limit on Q. If the calculated
QG from the generator is within these limits, then the generator excitation system is able to
maintain the terminal voltage at the specified value. On the other hand, if the generator Q G
reaches or exceeds its limit on Q (either maximum or minimum), then the generator excitation
system would not be able to maintain the terminal voltage magnitude at the specified value. In
that case the generator bus would behave as a PQ bus (P being already specified and Q G is set at
either maximum or minimum limiting value of Q violated). Thus, both the magnitude and angle
of the bus voltage are calculated in the present iteration. This phenomenon (where the generator
is behaving like a PQ bus) is termed as ‘PV to PQ switching’.
Complete GSLF algorithm
Step 1: Initialize Vj(0) = Vjsp00 for j = 2, 3, …, m and Vj(0) = 1.000 for j = (m+ 1), (m+ 2), …, n.
Set iteration count k = 1.
Step 2: For PV buses, i = 2, 3, …, m, carry out the following operations.
a) Calculate,
or
b) If, Qimin ≤ Qi(k) ≤ Qimax ; then assign |Vi(k)| = Visp and θi(k) = (Ai(k)). The quantity Ai(k) is given
by,
To solve the above equations, first we take an initial guess of the solution and let the
vector of initial guesses be denoted as . Subsequently, first order Taylor’s series expansion
(neglecting the higher order terms) is carried out for these equation around the initial
guess of solution as follow:
The above Equations can be written in matrix form as,
In the above equation, the matrix containing the partial derivative terms is known as the
Jacobin matrix (J). It is an n x n square matrix.
By rearranging and simplifying the above equation yields
This is the basic equation for solving the ‘n’ algebraic equations given at first place.
The steps of solution are as follow:
Step 1: Assume a vector of initial guess x(0) and set iteration counter k = 0.
Step 2: Compute f1(x(k)), f2(x(k)), …, fn(x(k)).
Step 3: Compute ∆m1, ∆m2, …, ∆mn.
Step 4: Compute error = max [|∆m1|, |∆m2|, …, |∆mn|]
Step 5: If error ≤ ε (pre - specified tolerance), then the final solution vector is x (k) and print
the results. Otherwise go to step 6.
Step 6: Form the Jacobin matrix analytically and evaluate it at x = x(k).
Step 7: Calculate the correction vector by using the above equation.
Step 8: Update the solution vector x(k+1) = x(k) + ∆x and update k = k + 1 and go back to
step 2.
Newton Raphson Load Flow Technique (NRLF) in polar coordinates
For NRLF techniques, the starting equations are same as the basic load flow
equations:
Assume that in an ‘n’ bus, ‘m’ machine system, the first ‘m’ buses are the generator
buses with bus 1 being the slack bus. Therefore, the unknown quantities are; (total
‘n–1’ quantities) & (total ‘n-m’ quantities). Thus, the total number of unknown
quantities is n–1+n–m = 2n–m–1. The specified quantities are; (total ‘n–m’
quantities) and . Hence, the total number of specified quantities is also (2n–m–1).
Since the injection real and reactive Power at any bus are functions of θ and V and
can be written as for i = 2, 3, …, n and for i = (m + 1), (m + 2), …, n. Assuming
initial guesses of the bus voltage angles (θ(0)) and the bus voltage magnitudes (V(0)),
The Taylor’s series expansion of the basic load flow equations are
In the above equation, the quantity Pi(θ(0), V(0)). is the calculated value of Pi with initial
guessed vectors θ(0), V(0).and can be denoted as . Similarly, for Q i(θ(0), V(0)) = . With this
notation, the above equation can be written as:
Where, and . Also note that the vectors ∆θ and P sp are of dimension (n − 1) × 1 each and
the vectors ∆V and Qsp are of dimension (n−m) × 1 each.
And
Then
Where, the matrix is known as the Jacobian matrix, the vector is known as the correction
vector and
The vector is known as the mismatch vector.
The elements of the Jacobian matrix can be calculated as follows:
Matrix (in this case, i = 2, 3, …, n, & j = 2, 3, …, n)
→ the diagonal element of
→ the off diagonal elements of
Matrix (in this case, i = 2, 3, …, n, & j = m + 1, m + 2, …, n)
→ the diagonal element of
→ the off diagonal elements of
Matrix (in this case, i = m + 1, m + 2, …, n, & j = 2, 3, …, n)
→ the diagonal element of
→ the off diagonal elements of
Matrix (in this case, i = m + 1, m + 2, …, n, & j = m + 1, m + 2, …, n)
→the diagonal element of
→ the off diagonal elements of
Where, and
Complete NRLF (polar) algorithm
Step 1: Initialize Vj(0) = Vjsp ˂ 0o for j = 2, 3, …, m and Vj(0) ≤ 1.0∟0o for j = (m+1),
(m+2), …, n. Let the vectors of the initial voltage magnitudes and angles be denoted as
V(0) and θ(0) respectively.
Step 2: Set iteration counter k = 1.
Step 3: For i = 2, 3, …, m, carry out the following operations.
a) Calculate,
b) If ; then assign and the ith bus retained as PV bus for kth iteration.
c) If , then assign or, if , then assign . In both the cases, this bus is converted to PQ
bus. Hence, its voltage magnitude becomes an unknown for the present iteration
(thereby introducing an extra unknown quantity) and to solve for this extra
unknown quantity, an extra equation is required, which is obtained by the new value
of Qisp (as shown above). Therefore, when the ith bus is converted to a PQ bus, the
dimensions of both ∆V and ∆Q vectors increases by one.
In general, if l generator buses (l ≤ (m− 1)) violate their corresponding reactive power
limits at step 3, then the dimensions of both ∆V and ∆Q vectors increases from (n – m)
to (n – m + l). However, the dimensions of both ∆P and ∆θ vectors remain the same.
Therefore, the size of matrix J2 becomes (n – 1) × (n – m + l), that of matrix J3
becomes (n – m + l) × (n – 1) and the matrix J4 becomes of size (n – m + l) × (n – m +
l). The size of matrix J1, however, does not change. Hence, the size of the matrix J
becomes (2n – m – 1 – l) × (2n – m – 1 – l) while the sizes of both the vectors ∆X and
∆M becomes (2n – m – 1 – l) × 1. Of course, if there is no generator reactive power
limit violation, then l = 0.
Step 4: Compute the vectors Pcal and Qcal with the vectors θ(k−1) and V(k−1) thereby forming the
vector ∆M. Let this vector be represented as ∆M = [∆M1, ∆M2, …, ∆M2n−m−1−l] T.
Step 5: Compute error = max (|∆M1|, |∆M2|, …, |∆M2n−m−1−l|).
Step 6: If error ≤ ε (pre - specified tolerance), then the final solution vectors are θ(k−1) and
V(k−1) and print the results. Otherwise go to step 7.
Step 7: Evaluate the Jacobian matrix with the vectors θ(k−1) and V(k−1).
Step 8: Compute the correction vector ∆X.
Step 9: Update the solution vectors θ(k) = θ(k−1) + ∆θ and V(k) = V(k−1) + ∆V. Update k = k + 1
and go back to step 3.
Newton Raphson Load Flow Technique (NRLF) in Rectangular coordinates
AC Load Flow Through a Transmission Line
Taking receiving end voltage as a reference phasor VR = │VR│∟0o and let the sending
end voltage lead it by an angle δ (torque angle) as VS = │VS│∟δo then the active and
reactive power transfer between the generator and load are expressed by:
For receiving end
Let │VS│ – │VR│= │∆V│, the magnitude of voltage drop across the transmission line,
then,
Newton Raphson Load Flow Technique (NRLF) in Rectangular coordinates
Newton Raphson Load Flow Technique (NRLF) in Rectangular coordinates
Fast Decoupled LFA Technique
The change in real power is primarily governed by the changes in the voltage angles, but
not in voltage magnitudes. On the other hand, the changes in the reactive power are
primarily influenced by the changes in voltage magnitudes, but not in the voltage angles.
(a) Under normal steady state operation, the voltage magnitudes are all nearly equal to
1.0.
(b) As the transmission lines are mostly reactive, the conductance's are quite small as
compared to the susceptance (Gij << Bij). Yij = Gij + Bij ; → lossless line (G is neglected)
(c) Under normal steady state operation the angular differences among the bus voltages
are quite small (θi − θj ≈ 0 (within 50 − 100)).→cos θi − θj ≈ 1 & sin (θi − θj) ≈ (θi − θj) rad
≈ 0.
(d) The injected reactive power at any bus is always much less than the reactive power
consumed by the elements connected to this bus when these elements are shorted to the
ground (Qi << BiiVi2).
With these assumptions, the
equations for Jacobian elements
Now, Gii and Gij are quite small and negligible and also cos(θi−θj) ≈ 1 and sin(θi−θj) ≈ 0, as
[(θi−θj) ≈ 0]. Hence,
Similarly,
Again,
The basic FDLF equation is:
Where,
Thus, there is a decoupling between ‘∆P - ∆θ’ and ‘∆Q - ∆V’ relations (i.e., ∆P depends
only on ∆θ and ∆Q depends only on ∆V).
The elements of J1 and J4 are:
Elements of J1:
Elements of J4:
We know
Substituting J1 in to the above equation, results:
Or,
Assuming Vj ≈ 1.0 under normal steady state operating condition, the above equation
reduces to,
Or, or,
Matrix B’ is a constant matrix of (n−1) × (n−1). Its elements are the negative of the
imaginary part of the element (i, k) of the YBUS matrix where i & k = 2,3, …, n.
Similarly,
Or,
Matrix B” is a constant matrix of (n−m) × (n−m). Its elements are the negative of the
imaginary part of the element (i, k) of the YBUS matrix where i & k = m + 1, m + 2, …, n.
As the matrixes [B’] and [B”] are constant, the inverse of these matrices can be stored
only once and used in every iteration, thereby making the algorithm faster.
The “DC” Power Flow
A further simplification of the power flow algorithm involves simply dropping the Q-V
equation altogether from FDLF. This results in a completely linear, noniterative, power
flow algorithm. To carry this out, we simply assume that all = 1.0 per unit.
The quantity ∆θ1 is not included in the vector ∆θ as the reference angle does not change.
The power flowing on each line using the DC power flow is then:
• Table below 2 illustrates the sparsity in the power flow equations of two electric power
systems, the first one is an 981 bus system and the other is a 4093 bus system.
• Note that for the 981 bus system, the number of nonzero entries is only 0.3% of the total
number of entries. The sparsity index for the Jacobian of the 4093 bus system is 0.125
percent.
• It should be obvious that as the size of the matrix increases the sparsity index decreases
dramatically.
981 Bus System 4093 Bus System
Matrix Admittance Jacobian Admittance Jacobian
Matrix Matrix Matrix Matrix
Dimension 980 1,896 4092 8,083
Maximum Number of Nonzero
Elements 3,248 10,904 24,522 82,283
Ratio of Number of Nonzero
Entries to Total Number of 0.00338 0.00303 0.00147 0.00125
Entries
• The admittance and Jacobian matrices of an electric power system have the following
property: the matrices are sparse but their inverse are full matrices. Therefore, the
execution time for the solution of linear equations will dramatically decrease if the
direct inversion of the matrix is avoided and at the same time the sparsity of the matrix
is exploited.
• A matrix is said to be sparse, if most of its elements are zero. The sparsity level
depends on the size of the system. Specifically, as the size of the electric power
system increases, the effects of sparsity become more pronounced. The
methodologies which exploit the sparsity of matrices in the solution of matrix
equations are collectively called sparsity techniques.
Classification of Solution Methods
can be classified into direct methods and iterative methods.
Direct Methods (applicable to linear Iterative Methods (applicable to nonlinear
problems) systems)
Matrix Inversion Coordinate (Gauss) Method
Gaussian Elimination Conjugate Gradient
Triangular Factorization
Read about Gaussian Elimination!
Triangular Factorization
The basis of this method is the factorization of the matrix A into the product of two
triangular matrices in the form:
A = LU (1)
where L is a lower triangular matrix, and U is an upper triangular matrix, i.e.
There are several methods by which a matrix can be factored. The methods of Doolittle,
Crout, Cholesky, and Gauss produce matrix factorizations.
Substituting the above equation in equation Ax = b yields;
LUx = b (2)
It is expedient to define the vector y:
y = Ux (3)
Upon substitution of the vector y:
Ly = b (4)
Equation Ax = b transformed into two matrix equations (3) and (4). Equation (4) is in
terms of the unknown vector y. Solution of this equation will provide the vector y. Then,
Equation (3) will have as unknown only the vector x. Solution of this equation will
provide the vector x. Thus, the solution x can be obtained in two steps as followings:
Step 1: Solve Equation (4) to obtain y. Because matrix L is a
lower triangular matrix, expansion of the matrix Equation (4)
will result in a set of linear equations with the following properties:
Step 2: Since the vector y is now known, Equation (3) is
solved for the unknown vector x. Since the matrix U
is an upper triangular matrix, the solution will be obtained
with a series of substitutions as follows:
Step 2: Elimination variable X2 from the third equation (by multiplying the above second
equation by 10 & add to the above third equation):
• The rule to be adopted here is that all diagonal elements of the upper triangular matrix be
equal to one. For this purpose, multiply the first equation by 0.5, the second equation by -
2, and the third equation by -1/8. The result is:
• Equating the right hand side matrix to the left hand side equation (term by term)
yields:
ℓ11 = 2 → ℓ11 = 2
1ℓ21 + 0ℓ22 + 0 = 1 → ℓ21 = 1
1.5ℓ21 + 1ℓ22 + 0 = 1 → ℓ22 = –0.5
Thus, the lower triangular matrix L is: 1ℓ31 + 0ℓ32 + 0ℓ33 = –2 → ℓ31 = –2
1.5ℓ31 + 1ℓ32 + 0ℓ33 = 2 → ℓ32 = 5
2.5ℓ31 + 3ℓ32 + 1ℓ33 = 2 → ℓ33 = –8
• The Gaussian elimination is performed in n steps, where n is the numbers of rows in the
matrix. Each step (for example, the step for row i) involves the following sub-steps:
Sub-step 1. Eliminate the ith variable from the remaining rows of the matrix (i.e. rows
i+1,...,n) by performing row operations. Note that this sub-step must be omitted if the i th
row is the last row of the matrix.
Sub-step 2. Multiply the ith row of the matrix by the inverse of the diagonal element. The
resulting row i will have the diagonal element equal to 1.0.
• The above two sub-step procedure must be applied to all rows of the matrix sequentially
starting from row i. Upon completion of the procedure, the resulting matrix is the upper
triangular matrix U with all diagonal elements equal to 1.0.
• The lower triangular matrix L is obtained as follows: (a) The element ℓij of the matrix L
for i ≥ j equals the entry ij of the modified matrix before the j th step (i.e. step j-1) of the
Gaussian elimination procedure. (b) The element ℓij of the matrix L for i < j equals zero.
• In other words, the Gaussian elimination yields, as a by product, the triangular
factorization of the matrix. It is expedient to perform the described procedure in a
tableau form in which case the L and U matrices can be obtained by inspection of the
final result. The procedure is also called Gaussian elimination in tableau form.
• The elements of the upper triangular and the lower triangular matrices can be grouped
into one table of the same dimension as the original matrix. The table (or tableau)
resulting from compacting the matrices L and U is called the Table of Factors (TOF).
The entry ij of the table for i ≥ j is occupied with the element ℓij of the L matrix, and the
entry ij of the table for i < j is occupied with the element u ij of the matrix U.
Note that the elements uii of the matrix U are missing from the table. However, the
elements need not be stored because their value is known (by construction) to be equal
1.0.
For inverter
Therefore, for a two terminal HVDC link, the complete set of solution vector is;
Therefore, out of 9 unknown variables, any 4 variables need to be specified and thereafter,
the remaining 5 variables can be solved using 5 DC model equations. These 4 variables
can be specified using the control specification. There can be several combinations of
control specification and some of their combination are;
Out of the two values, the value of Vdr which is greater than Vdi is chosen, i.e.
Note: Etr is known as, in the sequential solution method, the terminal voltages at rectifier
side, are known from the immediate past solution of the AC system equations.
Step 5: The quantities P(R)DCi and Q(R)DCi are calculated as;
Step 9: The net injected power at bus ‘i’ and ‘j’ are calculated as;
PiTotal = PACi + P(R)DCi; QiTotal = QACi + Q(R)DCi
PjTotal = PACj + P(I)DCj; QjTotal = QACj + Q(I)DCj
Step 10: With these net injected powers, the AC system is again solved to obtain the
updated values of Etr and Eti and subsequently, steps (1) - (8) are repeated again to update
the values of P(R)DCi, Q(R)DCi, P(I)DCj and Q(I)DCj till convergence in obtained.
Note:
At the rectifier end, P(R)DCi = ‒ Pdr and Q(R)DCi = ‒ Qdr as the rectifier draws both real and
reactive power from the grid.
At the inverter end, P(I)DCj = Pdi and Q(I)DCj = ‒ Qdi as the inverter supplies real power to the
AC grid and draws reactive power from the AC grid.
Combination 8
α, γ, Pdi and Vdr are specified. The calculation procedure is
Step 1: We know, Pdi = VdiId , or
, or
From the two values of Vdi in the above equation, the final value of Vdi is calculated as,
With these calculated values of Vdi and Id, steps (3)-(8) of combination-1 are followed to
calculate the Equivalent power injection values, where . With these injected power values,
the AC and DC systems are continued to be solved alternately till convergence in
achieved.
Combination 3
ar, Pdr, ai and Vdi are specified. The calculation procedure is
Step 1: Calculate Vdor & Vdoi from AC terminal bus voltage (Et) as follow;
and
Step 2: Since ϕr and ϕi are known from the given AC terminal bus voltage angle, we can
obtain Vdr as follow
Step 6: The step–9 of combination–1 is followed. The AC and DC systems are continued to
be solved alternately till convergence in achieved.
Example: Figure below shows a 5 – bus power system with one bipolar HVDC link is connected
between bus 4 and 5 (rectifier at bus 4 and inverter at bus 5). The relevant data for this DC link
are as follows; Rd = 10 Ω; Nr = Ni = 2; . The specified control values for combination 1 is given as
follow:
Combination 1
α = 5o, Pdr = 100 MW, γ = 18o, Vdi = 250 kV
Obtain the load flow solution using sequential FDLF method? (Assume that the base voltage of
the AC system is 132 kV)
Solution
Initially, the flat start is assumed for all the buses in the system. Therefore, |V 4| = |V5| = 1.0 p.u.
Now, before commencing the AC load flow, the equivalent power injections (both real and
reactive) at buses 4 and 5 need to be determined by calculating the values of different DC
variables as follows:
Vdr = 253.938 kV;Id = 393.797 A; Qdr = 16.276 Mvar; Pdi = 98.45 MW;Qdi = 35.024 Mvar.
D
COMPARISON OF AC LOAD FLOW METHODS
GS
-Needs many iteration
-No guarantee for convergence to single solution especially if the initial estimate
was outside the boxed in region
NR
The following questions are Criterion:
Converges more rapidly(quadratically) than GS meaning it needs less iteration
1. Will the iteration procedure converge to the
However, more functional evaluation areunique
required during each iteration
solution?
May diverge if the starting value is not
2. close
Whatenough
is the toconvergence
the root rate (how many
iterations are required)?
3. When using a digital computer, what are the
computer storage and time requirements?
4. Simplicity for programming and incorporating
different extra technique.
COMPARISON OF LOAD FLOW METHODS
No. GS NR FD
1 Provide large no. Provide less no. iteration
Provide even less no.
iteration to converge to converge iteration to converge
than NR
2 The computation time The computation time per The computation time
per iteration is less iteration is more per iteration is less
3 fewer memory high memory requirement few memory
requirement requirement