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Structure Factor Calculations
Structure Factor Calculations
B
Atom Atomic scattering factor (f)
C
Unit cell (UC) Structure factor (F)
Incoming radiation
Scattered beams
Em
is sio
(0 , 0 )
n in
‘all
’ d ir e
c ti o
ns
Sets electron into oscillation
Coherent
(definite phase relationship)
(0 , 0 )
The electric field (E) of the incoming radiation (with wavelength 0 and frequency 0) is the
main cause for the acceleration (& deceleration) of the electron (in an atom) i.e. the
oscillating magnetic field component can be ignored. The effect on the nucleus can be
ignored.
The oscillating electron is a source of electromagnetic radiation and radiates most strongly in
a direction perpendicular to its motion.
Hence, the radiation emitted will be polarized along the direction of its motion.
There is fixed phase relationship between the incoming radiation and the scattered wave.
The incoming wave may be polarized on un-polarized. We consider the intensity in these two
situations next.
Case A: intensity of the scattered wave for an polarized wave z P
For a wave oscillating in z direction r
x
Intensity of the scattered beam due to an electron (I) at a point P such that r >> is given by:
e 4 Sin 2
I I 0 2 4 2
mc r
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Cos(t)
0 t
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
Case B: intensity of the scattered wave for an un-polarized wave
E 2 E y2 E z2
I0
I0 y I0z
2
I Py I 0 y
m2c 4 r2
IPz = Intensity at point P due to Ez
e 4 Sin z
2
I Pz I 0 z 2 4
mc r2
Total Intensity at point P due to Ey & Ez
e4 Sin y Sin z
2 2
I P I0 2 4
mc r 2
e 4 Sin y Sin z
2 2
I P I0 2 4
mc r2
Sin 2 y Sin 2 z 1 Cos 2 y 1 Cos 2 z 2 Cos 2 y Cos 2 z
e
I P I0 2 4
4
1 Cos 2
(x )
mc r2
In terms of 2
e 4 1 Cos (2 )
2
I P I0 2 4
mc r2
e 4 I 0 y I 0 z Cos 2
1
2 0.8
I P I Py I Pz 2 4
0.6
m c
0.4
r2
0.2
Cos(t)
0 t
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
-0.2
I 0 e 4 1 Cos 2 2
-0.4
-0.6
2 4
-1
2
2 mc r Polarization factor
Comes into being as we used unpolarized beam
Very small number 1.2
0.8
(1+Cos(2t)^2)/2
0.6
0.4
0.2
2t
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
f →
Coherent Incoherent (Compton) Sin()/
scattering scattering
Z 10
Sin() / Sin( ) −1
(Å ) →
As θ↓, path difference ↓ constructive interference
As λ↓, path difference ↑ destructive interference 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
B Scattering by an Atom
BRUSH-UP
The conventional UC has lattice points only at the vertices/corners.
Additional lattice points may be present within the unit cell, if the unit cell is non-
primitive.
Needless to say, lattice in itself cannot scatter and atoms are required.
Motif is associated with lattice and motif may consist of one or more atoms, ions,
molecules (or combinations).
There may or may not be atoms located at the lattice points.
The shape of the UC is a parallelepiped (Greek parallēlepipedon) in 3D.
There may be additional atoms in the UC due to two reasons:
The chosen UC is non-primitive (hence additional lattice points exist within the cell, which are associated with atoms).
The additional atoms may be part of the motif.
We use the Bragg’s viewpoint to derive the general structure factor equation.
C Scattering by the Unit cell (uc)
We use the following points to derive the scattering from a unit cell (which is captured in the
structure factor (F)): (i) the scattering is coherent, (ii) Unit Cell (UC) is representative of the
crystal structure, (iii) scattered waves from various atoms in the UC interfere to create the
diffraction pattern.
The essential feature of the need for structure factor calculation can be understood from the
figure below. Let us assume a BCC crystal. If the waves are in phase for the ‘reflection’ from
the green planes, then the presence of the additional atom in the orange plane will lead to
scattering of waves, which are exactly out of phase with that scattered from the green planes
and hence the 100 reflection will ‘go missing’. Note that the atomic density of both the planes
(green and orange) is the same (one atom per a2) and hence the scattering power of these
planes is the same.
If we consider a simple cubic crystal with a two atom motif with atoms as: A at (0,0,0) and B
at (½, ½, ½), then the atomic scattering factor of the two atoms will not be the same (i.e. f A
fB) and hence there will be a ‘residual’ intensity from the 100 planes (i.e. 100 reflection will
‘not go totally missing’, but will be weak called a superlattice reflection).
Ray 1 = R1 R1'
Ray 3 = R3 R3'
B A
P1
x
R S
P3
Ray 2 = R2 B R2'
d(h00)
M N a
P2 (h00) plane
C
Unit Cell
2
a
AC d h 00
h
MCN :: AC ::
2
RBS :: AB :: x
AB x x
AC a
h
fj e fj e
hkl i j i [2 ( h xj k y j l z j )]
F n
j 1 j 1 e ( odd n ) i 1
The summation ‘j’ is done over the ‘n’ atoms in the UC. e ( even n ) i 1
In a primiteve unit cell (e.g. in the SC crystal) there is just one atom ni ni
(in the UC). e e
x’ (y’ & z’) refer(s) to the fractional coordinates of each atom. e i e i
Cos ( )
The fj is the atomic scattering factor for each atom. If there is just 2
one type of atom (say Po then fj = fPo). If there is more than one type
of atom, the fractional coordinates should match with the atom type.
Note: e n i (1) n
The intensity is an actual observable (if sampled in an experiment) and hence
e n i e n i
structure factor is a real quantity. n is an integer
A set of useful equations to evaluate the F is given on the right side.
How to understand the structure factor? Is there a simpler way so as to avoid
Funda Check calculations?
Structure factor (F) tells us that which planes in the crystal scatter from an unit cell and what
is the resultant intensities.
I.e. which hkl reflections are present and which ones are absent?
‘Which ‘hkl’ has what intensities?’ (which have higher intensities and which have lower
intensities).
The ‘F’ has each term weighed by the atomic scattering factor (f) and hence (we will see soon) that
intensities are weighed by some function of the ‘f’ of atoms in the unit cell.
Using the ‘F’ calculations we can construct the reciprocal crystal. And we will see later that diffraction
patterns are nothing but selective sampling of this reciprocal crystal (displayed/plotted in 2 axis or 1/x axis).
The structure factor calculation is performed by evaluating the sum for all “non-equivalent”
(this term will become clear from the examples considered soon) atoms in the unit cell.
* “Atoms” is used in a general sense here, it includes neutral atoms, ions, molecules etc.
Plotting Structure Factor calculations Please refer to topic on Reciprocal Lattice to know all the details
A set of planes (hkl) in real space becomes a point in reciprocal space (labeled without the
brackets as hkl ).
These points define the reciprocal lattice (a purely geometrical construction).
Structure factor calculations give us the intensity associated with each of these points. We
use a sphere to designate the intensity, with the diameter of the sphere proportional to the
intensity.
On decorating the reciprocal lattice with intensities, we get the reciprocal crystal.
Needless to point out the reciprocal of the reciprocal lattice is the real lattice.
Structure factor calculations
Now we perform calculation of structure factor calculations for some simple crystal structure
unit cells.
We basically perform the summation of the function f exp(i) for the different atoms ions in
the unit cell and work out the restrictions on the allowed values of hkl (and the corresponding
intensities).
Let us start with the simple cubic crystal. The first step is to construct the reciprocal lattice from the real
lattice. The real lattice is simple cubic and so is the reciprocal lattice.
UC of SC lattice
a
1/a
UC of reciprocal
a 1/a
lattice (primitive)
a 1/a
Underlying
lattice: SC
Each of the points in the reciprocal lattice corresponds to a set of planes in real space.
The dimensions are reciprocal to that in real space. Hence, lattice parameter ‘a’ in real space becomes
‘1/a’ in reciprocal space.
Now we have to perform structure factor calculations to determine the intensities which decorate this
lattice.
i [2 ( h x j k y j l z j )] We note that in simple cubic crystals
f j e f j e
hkl i j
F
there is no restrictions on the allowed
values of hkl (i.e. for all values of hkl
reflections are present).
F f ei[2 ( h 0 k 0l 0)] f e0 f
All reflections are
F f
2 2
F is independent of the scattering plane (h k l) present
1/a
In the reciprocal crystal, intensities decorate the lattice points (shown in orange colour). The magnitude of the
intensity (as determined from the structure factor calculation) is f2.
2 Atom at (0,0,0) & (½, ½, 0) and equivalent positions Face Centred Cubic (CCP crystal)
i j i[2 ( h xj k y j l z j )]
F fj e fj e (½, ½, 0), (½, 0, ½), (0, ½, ½)
F f [1 e i ( h k ) e i ( k l ) e i ( l h ) ]
UC of reciprocal crystal: non-primitive
Two odd and one even (e.g. 112); two even and one odd (e.g. 122) Continued…
Face Centred Cubic
Mixed indices Two odd and one even (e.g. 112); two even and one odd (e.g. 122)
Unmixed indices All odd (e.g. 111); all even (e.g. 222)
F 2f F2 4 f 2
l ) e ve n
(h + k + e.g. 110, 200, 211; 220, 022, 310.
i ( h k l )
F f [1 e ] (h + k +
l ) odd
F 0 F2 0
e.g. 100, 001, 111; 210, 032, 133.
Continued…
Underlying
UC in real lattice: BCO
space (crystal)
UC of the
reciprocal lattice
(primitive)
UC of reciprocal crystal
1/c
1/a 1/b
1 1
i [2 ( h k l 0)] Important note:
i [2 ( h 0 k 0 l 0)]
F hkl
f e f e 2 2 The 100, 101, 210, etc. points in
the reciprocal lattice exist (as the
h k Real corresponding real lattice planes
i[ 2 ( )] exist), however the intensity
f e0 f e 2
f [1 ei ( h k ) ] decorating these points is zero.
ve n
(h + k) e
b o th odd
F 2 f F 2
4 f2
o r
Both even e.g. 001, 110, 112; 021, 022, 023.
i ( h k )
F f [1 e ] Mixture
of od
( h + k ) d a nd e ve n F 0
odd F2 0
F is independent of the ‘l’ index e.g. 100, 101, 102; 031, 032, 033.
The result derived (i.e. the effect of lattice centring) can be understood by a simple geometric consideration. This is
illustrated for the C-centred OR crystal considered before, but is valid for all crystals.
Let us view the [001] projection of the crystal and consider two sets of planes: (210) and (310) planes.
On introducing a centring a new set of lattice planes between the original (210) planes have to be introduced, which
scatter exactly out of phase with the original planes and hence the 210 reflection goes missing on introducing a C-
centring. In the case of the (310) planes no new planes need to be introduced and this reflection survives.
The reciprocal lattice is a pure geometric construct from the real lattice; wherein, planes are
transformed into points.
The physics is introduced into the problem via the presence of atoms, which may scatter in
phase according to Laue’s or Braggs’ equations. This results in intensities decorating the
reciprocal lattice.
Due to presence of additional atoms in the UC (arising from additional lattice points in a
non-primitive UC or as a part of the motif) some of these intensities are zero.
Thus the UC (according to the picture: crystal = lattice + motif) is altered.
UC of the reciprocal
crystal
UC of crystal in
UC of reciprocal crystal: non-primitive
reciprocal space
* I.e. c-centred orthorhombic lattice decorated with a single ‘atom’ motif.
F SC, Al at (0, 0, 0), Ni at (½, ½, ½) NiAl: Simple Cubic (B2- ordered structure)
Click here to know more about ordered structures
1 1 1
i[2 ( h k l )] SC
i[2 ( h 0 k 0 l 0)]
F f Al e f Ni e 2 2 2
Real
h k l
i[ 2 ( )]
f Al e0 f Ni e 2
f Al f Ni ei [ h k l ]
F f Al f Ni F 2 ( f Al f Ni ) 2
l) even e.g. 110, 200, 211, 220, 310.
(h + k +
F f Al f Ni ei [ h k l ]
(h + k +
l ) odd
F f Al f Ni F 2 ( f Al f Ni )2
e.g. 100, 111, 210, 032, 133.
I ( f Al f Ni ) 2
UC in reciprocal
space&
I ( f Al f Ni )2
F 2 ( f Al 3 f Ni )2
F 2 ( f Al f Ni )2
F f Na [1 ei ( h k ) e i ( k l ) e i (l h ) ]
f Cl ei ( h k l ) [e i ( k l ) ei ( l h ) e i ( h k ) 1]
F [ f Na f Cl e i ( h k l ) ][1 e i ( h k ) e i ( k l ) e i ( l h ) ]
F [ f Na f Cl e i ( h k l ) ][1 e i ( h k ) e i ( k l ) e i (l h ) ]
NaCl: FCC lattice
CASE A : Term 2 [1 e i ( e ) e i ( e ) e i ( e ) ] [1 1 1 1] 4
CASE B : Term 2 [1 ei ( e ) ei ( e ) e i ( e ) ] [1 1 1 1] 4
Continued…
NaCl: FCC lattice
F 4[ f Na f Cl ] If (h + k + l) is odd F 2 16[ f Na f Cl ]2 I
111, 133
UC in reciprocal
space*
Bravais Lattice
present absent
Simple all None
I P 1 Cos 2 2
Lorentz factor Combination of 3 geometric factors
1 1
Lorentz factor Cos
Sin2 Sin2
* Altered in crystals with lower symmetry (of the same crystal class)
The polarization factor and the Lorentz factor both have ‘ ’ dependence (only) can be combined into the
L-P factor. Note that the LP factor has a dip in middle 2 values (with large values at low and high
angles). [Fig.1].
The signature of this factor is evident in the powder diffraction pattern from Po (simple cubic) as shown
in Fig.2.
Lorentz factor
Polarization factor
1
I P 1 Cos 2 2
Lorentz factor Cos 1
30
Sin2 Sin2
1 Cos 2 2 25
Lorentz Polarization factor
Sin Cos
2
Fig.1
Lorentz-Polarization factor
20
0
Example of effect of Polarization factor 0 20 40 60 80
on power pattern Bragg Angle (q, degrees)
Intensity of powder pattern lines (ignoring Temperature & Absorption factors)
POINTS
As one is interested in relative (integrated) intensities of the lines constant factors are
omitted:
Volume of specimen me , e (1/dectector radius)
We have assumed random orientation of crystals in a material with Texture relative
intensities are modified. So if a powder pattern has to be compared (both in intensity and
angle of peaks) with standard JCPDS/ICDD files, then the effect of texture has to be
removed first. Texture can be removed by: (i) making a fine powder and then annealing the
same (if required) or (ii) rotating the sample to all orientations (practically how this can be
done is not explained here!).
I is really diffracted energy (as Intensity is Energy/area/time).
Ignoring Temperature & Absorption factors is valid for lines close-by in pattern.