Computer Networks Unit-I-New

BCS 53 - Data & Communication Network
Data Communication & Network
Unit -1
Dr. S. P. Ponnusamy
Assistant Professor
Thiruvalluvar University
Model Constituent College of Arts and Science, Tittagudi-606106
Department of Computer Science 1
Paper Type : Core Theory

Credit :2
Hours/Week : 4
Internal Mark : 25
External Mark : 75
Text Book :
Tannenbaum. A.S., 2003 : Computer Networks, Prentice Hall.
Objective
• To equip students to basics of Data Communication and prepare them for
better computer networking.
Syllabus
UNIT I
Introductory Concepts - Network hardware - Network software – Network Architecture - Physical layer - Guided
transmission media - Cable television.
UNIT II
Data Link Layer - Design issues - Channel allocation problem - Multiple access protocols - Ethernet - Wireless LAN
- 802.11 architecture.
UNIT III
Network Layer : Design issues, Routing Algorithms, Shortest path routing, Flooding, Broadcast & Multicast routing
congestion, Control & internetworking.
UNIT IV
Transport Layer - Transport service - Elements of transport protocols - User Datagram Protocol - Transmission
Control Protocol.
UNIT V
Application Layer - DNS - Electronic mail - World Wide Web - Multimedia - Network security.
Introduction
Introduction
• What is computer Network?
• Applications of Computer Network
• Uses of Computer Network
Introduction – Computer Network

o Computer network connects two or more autonomous computers.
o The computers can be geographically located anywhere.
Introduction – Applications of Computer Network

 Resource Sharing
 Hardware (computing resources, disks, printers)
 Software (application software)
 Information Sharing
 Easy accessibility from anywhere (files, databases)
 Search Capability (WWW)
 Communication
 Email
 Message broadcast
 Remote computing
 Distributed processing (GRID Computing)
Introduction – Uses of Computer Network

1. Business Applications
2. Home Applications
3. Mobile Users
4. Social Issues

1. Business Applications
 Resource Sharing – physical / information
 Client/server - A network with two clients and one server
 The client-server model involves requests and replies
 Email, Video Conferencing, E-Commerce

2. Home Applications
 Access to remote information.
 News group
 Digital library
 Instant messaging
 Person-to-person communication.
 Peer-to-peer - there are no fixed clients and servers.
 Audio and Video sharing
 Interactive entertainment.
 Electronic commerce.

2. Home Applications – Peer –to – peer

2. Home Applications – Electronic Commerce

3. Mobile Users
 Combinations of wireless networks and mobile computing

4. Social Issues
 Network neutrality
 Digital Millennium Copyright Act
 Profiling users
 Phishing
Network Hardware
Network Hardware
• Types of transmission technology
– Broadcast Links
– Point-to-Point Links
• Types of Network
– Local Area Network (LAN)
– Wide Area Network (WAN)
– Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
– Personal Area /Home Network (PAN)
– Wireless Network
Network Hardware
Types of transmission technology
• Broadcast links
 Single communication channel that is shared by all
the machines on the network.
 Packet receiving and processing method (explain)
 using a special code in the address field.
 Multicasting (reserve a bit)
Network Hardware
Types of transmission technology
• Point-to-point links
 many connections between individual pairs of machines
 one or more intermediate machines are used to route the packet
Network Hardware
Classification of interconnected processors by scale
Network Hardware
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
• A LAN is group of devices connected and covers a smaller geographic
area.
Workstations
• It was n developed in 1970s.
• The LAN is mostly owned by private organizations in a building or
room for their business purposes.
• The LAN is used in offices, small business companies, and homes
with few machines. Switch
Server
• A LAN is very useful for sharing resources, such as data storage and
Printer
printers.
• LAN's operate at relatively high speed when compared to the typical
WAN.
Network Hardware
1. LAN – broadcast topology
• Two broadcast networks
(b) Ring
(a) Bus
Network Hardware
Bus
 It is a multipoint connection.
 In bus topology (linear), a common medium used to share all the nodes .
 The nodes are connected to the medium via drop line with a tap.
 The number of taps in a bus topology is limited, because, the tap consumes the power of the signal travelled on
the cable.
 The two ends of the cable are connected with terminators (5 ohm), which absorbs the signal.
 IEEE 802.E – Ethernet (bus-based broadcast network with decentralized control )
 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps - transmission speed
 Computers on an Ethernet can transmit whenever they want to send; if two or more packets collide, each
computer just waits a random time and tries again later
Network Hardware
Bus
 Advantages
 Easy installation.
 Less cable utilization and expensive.
 Data redundancy eliminated.
 Disadvantages
 Fault of break in cable stops all transmission.
 Adding new device is difficult.
 If the central bus length becomes too long, then repeaters might have to be used to
amplify the signal.
 Failure of node or drop line creates noise on the cable.
Network Hardware
Ring
 started out as a simple peer-to-peer LAN topology
 Each networked workstation had two connections:
one to each of its nearest neighbors
 Data was transmitted unidirectionally around the ring
 IEEE 802.5 (the IBM token ring) – operates at 4 and 16 Mbps.
 Sending and receiving of data takes place by the help of TOKEN
 Token contains a piece of information which along with data is sent by the source computer
 This token then passes to next node, which checks if the signal is intended to it
 If yes, it receives it and passes the empty to into the network
 otherwise passes token along with the data to next node
Network Hardware
Token Ring
Network Hardware
Ring
 Advantages
 This type of network topology is very organized
 Performance is better than that of Bus topology
 No need for network server to control the connectivity between workstations
 Additional components do not affect the performance of network
 Each computer has equal access to resources
 Disadvantages
 Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and destination,
slower than star topology
 If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected
 Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different components
Network Hardware
1. LAN – Broadcast Channel Allocation
 Static
 Divide time into discrete intervals and use a round-robin algorithm.
 allowing each machine to broadcast only when its time slot comes up.
 wastes channel capacity.
 Dynamic
 Common channel are either centralized or decentralized.
Network Hardware
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Covers a city.
• Example of a MAN is the cable television network available.
• Recent developments in high-speed wireless Internet access resulted in another MAN.
• Standardized as IEEE 802.16
Network Hardware
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
• Spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent .

• machines intended for running user – called hosts.
• hosts are connected by a communication subnet - operated by a telephone company or
Internet service provider.
Network Hardware
3. Wide Area Network (WAN) - Subnet
• carry messages from host to host.
• subnet consists of two distinct components: transmission
lines and switching elements.
• Transmission lines move bits between machines (ex -
wire, optical fiber, or even radio links)
• Switching elements are specialized computers that
connect three or more transmission lines (ex –switch,
router, bridge)
• Routing – store and forward, circuit switching, packet
switching
Network Hardware
3. Wide Area Network (WAN) - Subnet
A stream of packets from sender to receiver.
• packets are transported individually over the network and deposited at the receiving host,
where they are reassembled into the original message and delivered to the receiving process
Network Hardware
WAN that connects three branch offices in Australia
Network Hardware
WAN using a virtual private network.
Network Hardware
WAN using an ISP network.
Network Hardware
4. Home Network
 Computers (desktop PC, PDA, shared peripherals)

 Entertainment (TV, DVD, VCR, camera, stereo, MP3)
 Telecomm (telephone, cell phone, intercom, fax)
 Appliances (microwave, fridge, clock, furnace, airco)
 Telemetry (utility meter, burglar alarm, babycam).
Network Hardware
5. Wireless Network
Categories of wireless networks:

• System interconnection
• Wireless LANs
• Wireless WANs
Network Hardware
5. Wireless Network
(a) Bluetooth configuration (b) Wireless LAN
Network Software
Network Software
1. Protocol Hierarchies
2. Design Issues for the Layers
3. Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services
4. Service Primitives
5. The Relationship of Services to Protocols
Network Software
 Layer architecture simplifies the network design.
 each layer perform a specific collection of well-understood
functions
 number of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of
each layer, and the function of each layer differ from network
to network
 The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the
higher layers
 Network layers follow a set of rules, called protocol.
 The protocol defines the format of the data being exchanged,
and the control and timing for the handshake between layers.
 The interface defines which primitive operations and services
the lower layer makes available to the upper one.
 A set of layers and protocols is called a network architecture Layers, protocols, and interfaces.
Network Software
• Philosopher (Sender) • Philosopher (Receiver)
• Speaks Urudu & English • Speaks Chinese & French
• Want to Communicate • Received the message in
• Passes message in French Language
English
• agreed on a neutral
• agreed on a neutral language known to both
of them, Dutch
language known to both
of them, Dutch • Translates message in
French
• Translates message in
Dutch
• Received the message in

• Send the message in Dutch Language
Dutch Language
The philosopher-translator-secretary architecture
Network Software Source Destination
• Receives Message
• Message received from source
• Remove ‘H4’
• Message received from Layer 5
• Receives segments from L3
• Adds Header ‘H4’  Segment
• Combines ‘M1’ & ‘M2 into ‘M’
• Received “M+H4” from Layer 4
• Removes “H3”
• Breaks ‘M” into ‘M1” and ‘M2’
• Received packets from L2
• Adds Header ‘H3’  Packet
• Removes H2 and Trailer ‘T2’
• Received “M1+H3+H4” from Layer 3
• Received frame
• Adds H2 and Trailer ‘T2”  Frame
Transmission Media
Example information flow supporting virtual communication in layer 5.
Network Software
2. Design Issues
1. Addressing (identifying senders and receivers)  Port (L4) +IP (L3) + MAC (L2)
2. Data Transfer Channels  Unidirectional / Bidirectional?, How many Channels?

3. Error Control  Using error-detecting and error-correcting codes, sender and receiver agree
4. Sequencing of data packets [numbering]  Ordering the non-sequence packets
5. Flow Control  agreed-on transmission rate (speed)
6. Segmentation and Reassembly  Segment large message & reassemble segmented message
7. Multiplexing and demultiplexing  Allow multiple channels (shared medium)
8. Routing  Route the packets to destination when multiple path exists
Network Software
3. Connection Oriented Vs Connectionless
Example
Telephone call
Message Passing
Six different types of service.
Network Software
Server executes to accept incoming connections.
Client executes to establish a connection with server.
Server executes to accept a connection from client.
Server to execute to accept the first request
Client executes SEND to transmit its request
Server & Client terminates connection
Six service primitives that provide a simple connection-oriented service
Network Software
A simple client-server interaction using acknowledged datagrams.
Network Software
5. The Relationship of Services to Protocols Service
• Service is a set of primitives (operations)
that a layer provides to the layer above it
• Service defines what operations the layer is
prepared to perform
• Lower layer being the service provider and
the upper layer being the service user
• services relate to the interfaces between
layers
Protocols
• A set of rules governing the format and
meaning of the packets
• Messages that are exchanged by the peer
entities within a layer
• Entities use protocols to implement their
service definitions
The relationship between a service and a protocol. • Relates to the Packets sent between peer
entities on different machines
Network Architecture
Reference Models
1. OSI Reference Model Hubert Zimmerman John D. Day
• Proposal developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO)

• John D. Day and Hubert Zimmerman, 1983 and revised in 1995
• It is called the ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model
• It deals with connecting open systems—that is, systems that are open for
communication with other systems.
2. TCP/IP Reference Model Bob Kahn

• Designed in 1970s by 2 DARPA scientists—Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn
• The model itself is not of much use but the protocols are widely used
• Funded by US Department of Defense
Vint Cerf
OSI Reference Model
Principles for the seven layers
1. Layers created for different abstractions
2. Each layer performs well-defined function
3. Function of layer chosen with definition of international standard protocols in mind
4. Minimize information flow across interfaces between boundaries
5. Number of layers optimum
Network Architecture - OSI Reference Model

1. Physical layer
2. Data link layer
3. Network layer
4. Transport layer
5. Session layer
6. Presentation layer
7. Application layer

Principles that were applied
1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining
internationally standardized protocols
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across
the interfaces
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be
thrown together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the
architecture does not become unwieldy.

1. Physical layer
 Transmitting raw bits over a communication channel
 Design Issues
o how many volts should be used to represent a 1 and how many for a 0,
o How many nanoseconds a bit lasts
o Transmission may proceed simultaneously in both directions
o connection establishment and close
o how many pins the network connector has and what each pin is used for

2. Data-Link layer
 transform a raw transmission facility into a line that appears free of
undetected transmission errors to the network layer
 Sender break up the Input Data into frames
 Sequential Data transmission
 Flow control - a fast transmitter from drowning a slow receiver in data -
Buffering (to match with receiver speed)
 Medium Access Control

3. Network layer
 Addressing
 Routing - determining how packets are routed from source to destination
- (static or dynamic)
 Congestion Control
 Quality of service (delay, transit time, jitter, etc)
 Segmentation and Reassembly for large size packet

4. Transport layer
 End-to-End connectivity (ports)
 Datagrams (byte/message)
 Connection-oriented/Connectionless service
 Reliable/unreliable message delivery
 Flow control

5. Session Layer
 Allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them.
 Session Services
o Dialog control (keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit)
o Token management(preventing two parties from attempting the same critical operation
at the same time)
o Synchronization(checkpointing long transmissions to allow them to continue from where
they were after a crash).

6. Presentation Layer
 syntax and semantics of the information transmitted.
 With different data representations to communicate,
 the data structures to be exchanged can be defined in an abstract way,
 along with a standard encoding to be used ''on the wire
7. Application Layer
 Different Application used
 Protocols for the applications
TCP/IP Reference Model
Department of Computer Science
Network Architecture - TCP/IP Reference Model

Introduction to TCP/IP
 The Internet Protocol Suite (commonly known as TCP/IP) is the set of
communications protocols used for the Internet and other similar networks.
 It is named from two of the most important protocols in it:
 The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
 The Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first two networking protocols defined in this
standard.
OSI & TCP/IP Models
OSI & TCP/IP Models
Application Layer
Application programs using the network
Transport Layer (TCP/UDP)
Management of end-to-end message transmission,
error detection and error correction
Network Layer (IP)

Handling of datagrams : routing and congestion
Data Link Layer

Management of cost effective and reliable data delivery,
access to physical networks
Physical Layer
Physical Media
The TCP/IP reference model with some protocols we will study

Application Layer
 This layer is comparable to the application, presentation, and session layers of the
OSI model all combined into one.
 It provides a way for applications to have access to networked services.
 This layer also contains the high level protocols. The main issue with this layer is the
ability to use both TCP and UDP protocols.
 Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) uses UDP and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP), and File Transfer Protocol (FTP) uses TCP

Transport Layer
 This layer acts as the delivery service used by the application layer.
 Again the two protocols used are TCP and UDP.
 The choice is made based on the application's transmission reliability requirements.
 The transport layer also handles all error detection and recovery.
 It uses checksums, acknowledgements, and timeouts to control transmissions and end to
end verification.
 Unlike the OSI model, TCP/IP treats reliability as an end-to-end problem

Internet Layer
 This layer is also known as Internet layer. The main purpose of this layer is to
organize or handle the movement of data on network.
 By movement of data, we generally mean routing of data over the network.
 The main protocol used at this layer is IP. While ICMP(used by popular ‘ping’
command) and IGMP are also used at this layer.
Physical Layer
 As it is in OSI reference model
Physical Layer
Physical Layer
• Foundation on which other layers build
 Properties of wires, fiber, wireless limit what the network can do
• Key problem is to send (digital) bits using only (analog) signals
 This is called modulation
Physical Layer
Abstract Model of a Link
• Bit rate: bits/sec depends on the channel’s bandwidth
• Delay: how long does it take a bit to get to the end?
• Error rate: what is the probability of a bit flipping?
Physical Layer
Bandwidth-Delay Product
• Bits have a physical size on the channel!
• Storage capacity of a channel is: bit rate x delay
• Example:
• 100 Mbps 5000-km fiber, delay = 50 msec
• In 50 msec we can pump out 5 million bits
• So the fiber can store 5 million bits in 5000 km
• 1 km holds 1000 bits so a bit is 1 meter long
• At 200 Mbps, a bit is 0.5 m long
Physical Layer
Guided Transmission Media
• Magnetic media
• Twisted pairs
• Coaxial cable
• Power lines
• Fiber optics
Physical Layer - Guided Transmission Media

Link Terminology
• Simplex link
 Only one fixed direction at all times; not common
• Half-duplex link
 Both directions, but not at the same time
 e.g., senders take turns on a wireless channel
• Full-duplex link
• Used for transmission in both directions at once
• e.g., use different twisted pairs for each direction

Magnetic media
• Write data onto magnetic media
• Disks
• Tapes
• Data transmission speed

• Never underestimate the bandwidth of a station wagon full of
tapes hurtling down the highway.

Magnetic media - Transport
AST 1990: Never underestimate the bandwidth of a station wagon full of tapes hurtling down
the highway.
 Ultrium 7 tape = 6 TB, 400 cm2 (costs €100)
 Typical van has capacity of 7 x 106 cm2
 Van holds 17,500 tapes holding 105 x 1015 bytes
 One person can drive NYC to LA in 5 days = 4 x 105 s
 This is a bandwidth of 2 Tbps or 2000 Gbps

Twister Pairs
o Twisted-pair is a type of cabling that is used for telephone communications and most modern
Ethernet networks.
o A pair of wires forms a circuit that can transmit data.
o The pairs are twisted to provide protection against crosstalk, the noise generated by adjacent
pairs.
o There are two basic types, shielded twisted-pair (STP) and unshielded twisted-pair (UTP).

Twister Pairs – Shielded (STP)

Twister Pairs - Unshielded (UTP)

Twister Pairs - Unshielded (UTP)
 Consists of 4 pairs (8 wires) of insulated copper wires typically about 1 mm thick.
 The wires are twisted together in a helical form.
 Twisting reduces the interference between pairs of wires.
 High bandwidth and High attenuation channel.
 Flexible and cheap cable.
 Category rating based on number of twists per inch and the material used
 CAT 3, CAT 4, CAT 5, Enhanced CAT 5 and now CAT 6.

Twister Pairs - UTP Categories
 UTP comes in several categories that are based on the number of twists in the wires, the diameter of
the wires and the material used in the wires.
 Category 3 is the wiring used primarily for telephone connections – Bandwidth 16 MHz, 11.5 dB
attenuation, 100 Ohms impendence, 10baseT, voice applications.
 Category 4 – Bandwidth 20 MHz, 7.5 dB attenuation, 100 Ohms impendence, 10baseT, voice and data
applications.
 Category 5 – Bandwidth 100 MHz, 24.0 dB attenuation, 100 Ohms impendence, 10baseT and Fast
Ethernet (100baseT).
 Category 5e - Bandwidth 150 MHz, 24.0 dB attenuation, 100 Ohms impendence, Fast Ethernet
(100baseT) and Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps).
 Category 6 - Bandwidth 150 MHz, 19.8 dB attenuation, 100 Ohms impendence, Gigabit Ethernet (1000
Mbps) and 10 Gbps.

Twister Pairs

Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cable is a copper-cored cable surrounded by a heavy shielding and is used to connect
computers in a network.
 Outer conductor shields the inner conductor from picking up stray signal from the air.
 High bandwidth but lossy channel, Better shielding and more bandwidth for longer distances and
higher rates than twisted pair..
 Repeater is used to regenerate the weakened signals.
Category Impedance Use

RG-59 75 W Cable TV
RG-58 50 W Thin Ethernet
RG-11 50 W Thick Ethernet

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial Cable
• Baseband Coaxial cable
– Used for digital transmissions (called baseband.)
– Good noise immunity.
– Data rates as high as 2 Gbps for 1 Km distance.
– Now being replaced by fiber.
• Broadband Coaxial cable
– Used for analog transmissions (called broadband.)
– Can run 300 MHz for long distances.
– Analog signaling has better S/N than digital signaling.
– Interfaces must convert digital signals to analog and vice versa.
– Designed for long distances - can use amplifiers.

Fiber Optic
 Optical fibers use light to send information through the optical medium.
 It uses the principal of total internal reflection.
 Modulated light transmissions are used to transmit the signal.

Fiber Optic - Total Internal Reflection

Fiber Optic Cable
 Contains one or several glass fibers at its core
 Surrounding the fibers is a layer called cladding

Fiber Optic
 Light travels through the optical media by the way of total internal reflection.
 Modulation scheme used is intensity modulation.
 Two types of Fiber media :
• Multimode
• Singlemode
 Multimode Fiber can support less bandwidth than Singlemode Fiber.
 Singlemode Fiber has a very small core and carry only one beam of light. It can
support Gbps data rates over > 100 Km without using repeaters.

Fiber Optic - Single & Multi Mode
 Single-mode fiber
• Carries light pulses along single path
• Uses Laser Light Source
 Multimode fiber
• Many pulses of light generated by LED travel at different angles

Fiber Optic
 The bandwidth of the fiber is limited due to the dispersion effect.

 Distance Bandwidth product of a fiber is almost a constant.
 Fiber optic cables consist of multiple fibers packed inside protective
covering.
 62.5/125 µm (850/1310 nm) multimode fiber
 50/125 µm (850/1310 nm) multimode fiber
 10 µm (1310 nm) single-mode fiber

Fiber Optic Cable
• FO Cable may have 1 to over 1000 fibers

Comparison of Optic Cable and Copper
Copper Fiber
Lower Higher Bandwidth
5 Km 30 KM Distance between repeaters
High Low Interference

- Smaller/Lighter Physical
Bi-directional Uni-directional Flow
Physical Layer – Cable Television

• Community antenna television
• Internet over cable
• Spectrum allocation
• Cable modems

Community Antenna Television
 Cable television was conceived in the late 1940s.
 To provide better reception to people living in rural or mountainous areas.
 The system initially consisted of a big antenna on top of a hill to pluck the television signal out of the air, an
amplifier, called the head end, to strengthen it, and a coaxial cable to deliver it to people's houses,

Internet Over Cable Television
1. Cable television
2. The fixed telephone system

 The cable system grew and the cables between the various cities were replaced by high-bandwidth fiber.
 A system with fiber for the long-haul runs and coaxial cable to the houses is called an HFC (Hybrid Fiber Coax) system.
 The electro-optical converters that interface between the optical and electrical parts of the system are called fiber nodes.
 Because the bandwidth of fiber is so much more than that of coax, a fiber node can feed multiple coaxial cables.

The fixed telephone system.


Spectrum Allocation
• Upstream and downstream data are allocated to frequency channels not used for TV channels
Frequency allocation in a typical

cable TV system used for Internet access.

Cable Modems
• Cable modems at customer premises implement the physical layer of the DOCSIS standard
 QPSK/QAM is used in timeslots on frequencies that are assigned for upstream/downstream data
Typical details of the upstream and downstream

channels in North America.
End

Computer Networks Unit-I-New

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BCS 53 - Data & Communication Network

Data Communication & Network

Paper Type : Core Theory

Introduction – Computer Network

Introduction – Applications of Computer Network

Introduction – Uses of Computer Network

Introduction – Uses of Computer Network

Introduction – Uses of Computer Network

Introduction – Uses of Computer Network

Introduction – Uses of Computer Network

Introduction – Uses of Computer Network

Introduction – Uses of Computer Network

 Digital Millennium Copyright Act

• Spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent .

A stream of packets from sender to receiver.

WAN that connects three branch offices in Australia

WAN using a virtual private network.

WAN using an ISP network.

 Computers (desktop PC, PDA, shared peripherals)

Categories of wireless networks:

(a) Bluetooth configuration (b) Wireless LAN

• Received the message in

The philosopher-translator-secretary architecture

Network Software Source Destination

Example information flow supporting virtual communication in layer 5.

2. Data Transfer Channels  Unidirectional / Bidirectional?, How many Channels?

Server executes to accept incoming connections.

Client executes to establish a connection with server.

Server executes to accept a connection from client.

Server to execute to accept the first request

Client executes SEND to transmit its request

Server & Client terminates connection

Six service primitives that provide a simple connection-oriented service

A simple client-server interaction using acknowledged datagrams.

• Proposal developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO)

2. TCP/IP Reference Model Bob Kahn

Network Architecture - OSI Reference Model

Network Architecture - OSI Reference Model

Network Architecture - OSI Reference Model

Network Architecture - OSI Reference Model

Network Architecture - OSI Reference Model

Network Architecture - OSI Reference Model

Network Architecture - OSI Reference Model

Network Architecture - OSI Reference Model

Network Architecture - OSI Reference Model

Network Architecture - TCP/IP Reference Model

Network Layer (IP)

Data Link Layer

The TCP/IP reference model with some protocols we will study

Network Architecture - TCP/IP Reference Model

Network Architecture - TCP/IP Reference Model

Network Architecture - TCP/IP Reference Model

Physical Layer - Guided Transmission Media

Physical Layer - Guided Transmission Media

• Data transmission speed

Physical Layer - Guided Transmission Media

Physical Layer - Guided Transmission Media

Physical Layer - Guided Transmission Media

Physical Layer - Guided Transmission Media

Physical Layer - Guided Transmission Media

Physical Layer - Guided Transmission Media

Physical Layer - Guided Transmission Media

Physical Layer - Guided Transmission Media

Category Impedance Use