Qualitative vs.

Quantitative
research methods

PART I – THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

PART II – EVALUATION OF QUALITATIVE METHODS INCLUDING

CONCEPTS LIKE CREDIBILITY, RESEARCHER BIAS, GERNERALIZATION,
TRIANGULATION AND REFLEXIVITY.

PART III – SAMPLING METHODS, PURPOSIVE SAMPLING AND

SNOWBALL SAMPLING

PART IV – ETHICS
PART I – THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH METHODS
 Qualitative vs. Quantitative
research methods:
 Qualitative research takes place in the real world,
as opposed to the laboratory, and deals with how
people give meaning to their own experience.
 Then it is followed by an attempt to interpret the
behaviour and the meanings that people have given
to their experience.
 The objective of qualitative research is to describe
and possibly explain events and experiences.
Qualitative research strategies:
These often involve face-to-
face interactions beteen
researcher and participant

Step 1
The researchers need to be
flexible and sensitive to the
Observations needs of the social context
within which the data is
Interviews obtained.

Cases studies
The data is then analysed
and interpreted. To look for
Step 2 themes is more common
than trying to confirm a
hypothesis.
 Qualitative – words and
anlysis
Qualitative – numbers- easy
to summarize and use in
statistics. Meant for Gathered through
generalization beyond the direct interaction
sample from which the data with participants.
is drawn. Open-ended and
flexible ”rich
data”
 When dealing with qualitative
research – it is imperative to be
able to tolerate a degree of
uncertainty.
 According to qualitative research:

”Researchers can only come to understand the

social world through participants’ interpretations –
interpretative approach.
Reality is diverse and multifaceted. The goal is to
get a picture of this reality. To measure means to
reduce it – and therefore lose meaning.
HISTORICAL FLASHBACK:  Quantitative methods, such as
the experiment, have been
used partly in order to
maintain the appearance of
psychology as a scientific
discipline with valid
knowledge claims.
 During the 20th century there
was a shift away from seeing
quantitative methods as the
only valid way of gaining data
– but also a realization that
both methods are needed.
 What decides whether to use
qualitative vs. Quantitative data?
 Purpose of research
 Characteristics of participants
 Researchers’ beliefs about the nature of
knowledge and how it can be aquired (see next
slide)
 The nature of knowledge – Ritchie and Lewis
questions based on the epistenological discussion
(how can we know abou tthe world)

1. What is the relationship between the researcher and the

researched? Can the researcher be objective. Can the
researched ever behave naturally. No? Well, then
reflexibility is needed.
2. What can be held as truth? Accurate measures (natural
sciences) or by being supported by something else
(social sciences)
3. How is knowledge gathered? Deductive (cause and
effect, generalization and prediction) vs. Inductive
(collected evidence used to reach a conclusion – focus:
to understand the process).
 Rolfe:

Means that the distinction between qualitative and

quantitave research is a textbook creation and that
there is no unified qualitative paradigm.
In fact, he claims, they are not separated.
 Exercise 1: try to fill in what qualitative research has in common
opposed to quantitative methods based on what we have covered so
far:

Qualitative methods
Quantitative methods assume:
assume:

• That variables can be

identified (and
operationalised)
• That The relationship
between variables can
measured by statistics.
• Realibility and
objectiveness is seen as
highly important (and
possible) – therefore
controlled environments
(like labs) are preferred.
• Aim: to infer a cause-
effect relationship and to
be able to generalize from
the study.
• Eg. experiments and
correlational studies.
PART II EVALUATION OF
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
 Evaluation: strengths
 Provide rich data – that is, in-depth descriptions of
individual experiences.
 Particularly useful for investigating complex and sensitive
issues.
 Explain phenomena – that is, go beyond mere observation
to understand what lies behind them (eg. why do people
become homeless?)
 Generate new ideas and theories to explain and overcome
problems.
 People are studied in their own environment, which
increases credibility.
 Evaluation: limitations
 Can be very time-consuming and generate a huge
amount of data.
 Data analysis can be difficult because of the
amount of data and no clear strategy for analysis.
 Interpretation of data may be subjective (but
reflexivity can help to minimize this)
 Is it possible to generalize from
qualitative data?
This is often the aim of research, but not always so for qualitative research.
Representative generalization – can the findings be applied to populations
outside the population of the study? Samples are often small and not selected for
being statistically representative so this makes generalization difficult. However,
if evidence from other studies confirms the findings (confirmability through eg.
triangulation) it is argued that generalization is possible (Hammersley, 1992)
Inferential generalizability – same thing but with the difference that it is the
setting of the research that is to be generalized to other settings. Transferability.
Depends on the depth of the description of the context – and this may allow for
inferences to be made – but needs to be supported or disproved by further
evidence (e.g. transferability check through triangulation)
Theoretical generalizability – if the theoretical concepts can be used to open
up new fields and develop further theory.
 Criteria for judging quantitative
and qualitative research
Credibility Internal validity
”Trustworthyness” How believable are the research conclusions? Conclusions and interpretations are
Breadth and deapth is gathered. correct as variables are well defined and measures well controlled.

Transferability Generalizability
The context is well described as it is unlikely that The research conclusions can be applied to
it won’t have an impact on the findings. Different samples as the research context is
controlled enough.

Dependability Reliability
Data obtained cannot be expected to be the same Repeated use of the instrument provide stable
Dependability means therefore that the researcher has measurements and researchers using them
Described all factors that might have influenced the data. Find similar results

ConfirmabilityObjectivity
Sujectivity is not only unavoidable; it is valued. Therefore
researchers should give details of procedures and attempt As many sources of bias from opinion are

To find examples that contradict the findings. Eliminated from the research process.
 A study is trustworthy if,
and only if, the reader of
the reseach report judge it
to be so” (Rolfe, 2006)
 Something on triangulation
As a way to increase credibility, but also check transferability,
dependability and confirmability triangulation is often used.

Triangulation = a cross-checking of information and conclusions

in research, brought about by the use of multiple procedures or
sources. If there is agreement between these, there is support of
the interpretation of data.

Using triangulation does not mean you get a certain truth, but
you get closer to it – reflexivity is still necessary.
 Example of triangulation
techniques:
 Method triangulation. Comparing data that come from the
use of different methods. These could be both quantitative
and qualitative. Eg. first using a questionaire to ask about
eating habits in a school, and then conduct focus group
interviews afterwards.
 Researcher triangulation – involves using different people
as researchers. This increased the confirmability and
credibility of conclusions. Without this data collection and
conclusions might be affected by researcher bias.
Other triangulation thechniques include data triangulation
and theory triangulation.
 Reflexivity Examiner’s hint: to answer a question
about the value of reflexivity in
qualitative research, you should make
reference to the different opportunities
for reflexibility provided by
interviews, case studies and
observations.

Refers to the researcher’s need to constantly be aware of how

and why they are conducting the research, and to recognize at
what points their own beliefs and opinions might have
influenced data collection or analysis.

To undergo an interview with collegues is a way to expose

possible bias.
 EFFECTS OF PARTICIPANT
EXPECTATIONS AND RESEARCHER
BIAS
Participant expectations – the participants’ ideas of the
researcher and the research which can affect the
trustworthiness of the data. Pleasing the experiment (or the
screw you effect).
Researcher bias – the researcher does not pay enough
attention to the participants. This leads to the result that it is
the researcher’s own beliefs that determine the research
effect.
Can be checked through interviews, credibility checks and
reflexivity.
PART III SAMPLING METHODS
 Sampling methods Sampling methods in
qualitative research
differs from those
used in quantitative
research.

 The sampling numbers are generally smaller thani n quantitative

research.
 To get random, representative samples from target population is
seldom possible (or the aim) of qualitative research. It is not
intended to be statistically representative.
 Instead, a sample is chosen because it represents important
characteristics of a population – characteristics that are the main
concern in evaluation of research.
 Examples of sampling in
qualitative research
 Purposive sampling – the participatns are chosen
on the basis of particular characteristics that will
help the researcher to explore the research topic.
Eg. specific experiences, social roles etc. It may
be important that there is a diversity – but this is
not necessary nor at times possible. Problem –
the sample might be biased but this is thought to
be lessened if the criterias on which participants
were chosen are clearly documented.
Snowball sampling
The researcher simply
asks participants in the
study if they know any
other potential
participants.
+ time and cost
efficient.
+ can be used to get
hold hidden populations
- Will most probably
lead to biased samples.
- Ethics: confidentiality
concerns. Convenience samples can also be
used.
 Exercise II
You have been asked to conduct a qualitative research study
on football fans’ perception of their favourite team.

 What sampling method would be appropriate?

Why?
 Could another sampling method be considered?
Why?
 What should you consider overall when selecting
your sample?
PART IV ETHICS
 Ethics

In large these are the same as in quantitative research

(informed consent, protection from harm, respect for
the participants’ integrity and privacy and right to
withdraw).
Special here is to be open to problems linked to the
private nature often researched, that the researcher
might get personally involved and lose objectivity.
Specifically in case studies – anonymity issues (case
study with covert observation – no consentform or
right to withdraw – problematic).
 Learning outcomes – answer these:
 Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data.
 Explain strenths and limitations of a qualitative
approach to research
 Explore the extent to which findings can be
generalized from qualitative studies.
 Explain the importance of credibility in qualitative
research.
 Explain the effect of triangulation on the
credibility/trustworthiness of qualitative research
 Explain reflexivity in qualitative research.