Sampling Methods

Objective
– Explain the role of sampling in research process
– Distinguish between probability and non probability sampling
– Understand factors considered when determining sample size

– Understand the steps in developing a sample

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 Introduction

• Proverbs
– ”To call in the statistician after the experiment is done
may be no more than asking him to perform a post-
mortem examination: he may be able to say what the
experiment died of.”

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 Introduction
• Sampling refers to strategies that enable us to pick a subgroup
from a larger group and then use this subgroup as a basis for
making inferences about the larger group.

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 Reasons for Sampling
• Main reasons for sampling instead of doing a
census.
– Economy
– Timeliness
– The large size of many populations
– Inaccessibility of some of the population
– accuracy

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 Sampling….
• Sample surveys are almost never conducted for the purposes
of describing the particular sample under study.
• Rather they are conducted for purposes of understanding the
larger population from which the sample was initially selected

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 Disadvantages of sampling

There is always sampling error.

Sampling may create a feeling of
discrimination in the population.
Inadvisable where every unit in the population
is legally required to have a record.

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 Sampling Plan scheme
1. Define the Population of Interest
2. Identify a Sampling Frame (if possible)
3. Select a Sampling Method
4. Determine Sample Size
5. Execute the Sampling Plan

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 Types of Sampling
A. Probability Sampling
 Each member of the population has a known chance of
being selected
1. Simple random sampling
2. Systematic random sampling
3. Stratified random sampling
4. Cluster sampling
5. multistage sampling

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 Types of sampling cont…

B. Non-probability sampling
 The researcher has no way of forecasting that each member
of the population will be represented in the sample.
1. Judgmental/Purposive
2.Quota
3.Convenience/haphazard
4. Snow ball
5. Voluntary/self selection

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 1. Simple random sampling
• The least sophisticated of all sampling designs
• Simple random selection where every member of the population
is given an equal chance of being selected
• Good for homogeneous population
• Easy when the population is small and elements are known
• Impractical for very large populations

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 Simple random sampling cont…
• SRS removes the possibility of any bias on the part of
researcher in selecting the sample from sampling frame
• we can apply methods like
Lottery method (sample drawn from box)
Table of random numbers
Computer generated random numbers

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 2.Systematic random sampling

• A method of probability sampling in which the defined

target population is ordered and the sample is selected
according to position using a skip interval
• Selecting elements of the population in predetermined
sequence
• Select every kth item on a list (k= N/n)
• Randomness element is in picking up the starting point

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Systematic random sampling cont…

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Systematic random sampling cont…

Advantage
• Easier to perform it
• Require less time than SRS
• Very good when the population from which
sample is to be drawn is homogeneously distributed

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 3.Stratified random sampling

• Method of probability sampling in which the population is

divided into different subgroups and samples are selected from
each.
• Divide the population by certain characteristics into homogeneous
subgroups (strata)
• Elements within each strata are homogeneous, but are
heterogeneous across strata.
• A simple random or a systematic sample is taken from each strata
relative to the proportion of that stratum to each of the others.

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 Stratified random sampling cont…
Researchers use stratified sampling:
• When a stratum of interest is a small percentage
of a population and random processes could
miss the stratum by chance.

• When enough is known about the population

that it can be easily broken into subgroups or
strata.

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Stratified random sampling cont…
1. Equal intensity

POPULATION
n=1000

STRATA 1
STRATA 2
n= 500
n= 500

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 Stratified random sampling cont…
2.Proportional to size

POPULATION
n=1000

STRATA 1
STRATA 2
n= 400
n= 600

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Stratified random sampling cont…
Advantages
• representativeness of the sample is improved

• focuses on important subpopulations and

ignores irrelevant ones
• improves the accuracy of estimation

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Stratified random sampling cont…
 Disadvantages
• can be difficult to select relevant stratification
variables
• not useful when there are no homogeneous subgroups
• can be expensive
• Requires accurate information about the population,
or introduces bias.

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 4. Cluster sampling
• Used when:
– Researchers lack a good sampling frame for a
dispersed population.
– The cost to reach an element to sample is very
high.
• A random sample of clusters is taken, then all units
within those clusters are examined.
• Each cluster is as varied heterogeneous internally
and homogeneous to all the other clusters.

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Cluster sampling cont….
 Advantage:
• Sampling frame of the reference population is not
required (Sufficient to have a list of clusters)
• Cost effective
 Disadvantage:
• Larger sampling error than other forms of random
sampling.
• If clusters are not small it can become expensive.

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5. Multistage sampling
• Used when the reference population is large and
widely scattered.

• Selection is done in stages until the final sampling

unit are arrived at.
• Finally study subjects will be selected by
SRS
• No need of sampling frame for the
reference population.

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Multistage sampling cont…
 Advantage
• Cuts the cost of preparing the sample
frame

 Disadvantage
• sampling error is high compared with
simple random sampling

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 Probability sampling summary

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 Probability sampling summary cont…

Population characteristics Appropriate sampling

technique
1. Homogeneous members •Simple random sampling
•Systematic random
sampling
2. Stratified population with Stratified random
approximately equal in sampling
size
3. Stratified population, Proportional stratified
strata different in size sampling
4. Population with discrete Cluster sampling
clusters with similar
characteristics
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 2.Non-probability sampling

• A type of sampling where each study unit in the

population has an unknown probability of inclusion in the
sample.

• The selection of subjects is subjective.

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 When to use Non probability
• Group that represents the target population already exists.

• Difficult or impossible to obtain the list of names for

sampling (Homeless, IV Drug user).

• For rare population.

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Non-probability sampling…
 Advantages

• Used when a sampling frame does not exist.

• They are quick, inexpensive and convenient.

• Good for pretests, pilot studies, In-depth interviews.

• Used when Precise representativeness is not

necessary.

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Non-probability sampling…
 Disadvantage

• No random selection (unrepresentative).

• Reliability cannot be measured.

• No way to measure the precision of the resulting

sample.
• Inappropriate for generalizing findings.

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 1.Judgmental Sampling
• The researchers choose the sample based on who they
think would be appropriate for the study.

• Primarily used when there is a limited number of people

that have expertise in the area being researched.

• Appropriate when the study subjects are difficult to

locate.

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Judgmental Sampling cont…
• More efficient and economic where the sample sizes
are small.
• Used where randomization is not expected to provide
representative samples.

• Reduced cost and time involved in acquiring the

sample

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 2. Quota sampling
• A variation of convenience sampling
• Elements are selected in the same proportion as in
the population but not in a random fashion
Advantage
• Interviewers are required to find cases with
particular characteristics
• Better than convenience, introduce some diversity
Disadvantage
• non random sampling

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3.Convenience/Haphazard
• Selection of subjects based on easy availability &
accessibility
Eg. People who just happen walking
• Often used in face to face interviews
Advantage
• very easy to carry out
Disadvantage
• Difficult to draw any meaningful conclusion.
• May not be representative

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 4.Purposive sampling
• Use judgment and deliberate effort to pick individuals
who meet a specific criteria.

• Choosing people who we have decided are “typical”

of a group

• Especially good for exploratory or field research.

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 Purposive sampling cont…

• Appropriate for at least 3 situations.

1. select cases that are especially informative

2. desired population for the study is rare or very
difficult to locate.
3.case studies analysis – find important individuals
and study them in depth.

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5.Snowball sampling
• Involves a process of “chain referrals”

• Suitable for locating key informants.

• You start with one or two key informants and ask

them if they know persons who know a lot about your
topic of interest.

• Used when trying to interview hard to reach groups.

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6. Volunteer/self selection
• Subjects selected are volunteers who show interest to
the study.

• Common in trials demanding long duration.

• Payments for subjects some times be involved.

• Introduces strong bias/self selection bias.

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 Errors in Sampling

1. Non sampling error (Bias)

• Systematic error in the design or conduct of a sampling
procedure which results in distortion of the sample so that
it is no longer representative of the reference population.

 We can eliminate or reduce the non-sampling error (bias)

by careful design of the sampling procedure and not by
increasing the sample size.

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Errors in sampling cont…
2.Sampling Error (random error)
· A results obtained from the sample cannot reflect
the full range of variation found in the larger group
(population).
· This type of error, arising from the sampling process
itself, is called sampling error, which is a form of
random error.
 Sampling error can be minimized by increasing the
size of the sample.

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 Data collection

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 Learning objecti ves

By the end of this session, students will be expected to:

o List different data collection techniques

o Discus strength and limitation of different data collection
techniques
o Develop data collection instrument for your own research
proposal

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 Data collection methods
 Data collection techniques allow us to systematically collect data to met the
objectives of study

 If data are collected haphazardly, it will be difficult to answer the research

questions

 Depending on the type of variables and the objective of the study different
data collection methods can be used

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 Commonly used data collection techniques
• Using available information
• Observation
• Interviewing
• questionnaires
• Focus group discussions
 Differences between data collection
techniques and data collection tools
Data collection techniques Data collection tools
Using available information Checklist; data compilation
forms

Observation Eyes and other senses,

pen/paper, watch, scales,
microscope, etc..

Interviewing Interview guide, checklist,

questionnaire, tape recorder

Administering written Questionnaire

questionnaire
 Various data collection techniques

- Observation
– Face-to-face and self-administered interviews
– Postal or mail method and telephone interviews
– Using available information (document review)
– Focus group discussions guide (FGD)

– Others too

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 1. Observation
 Observation is a technique that involves systematically selecting, watching
and recording behavior and characteristics of living beings, objects or
phenomena
 It includes all methods from simple visual observations to the use of high
level machines and measurements, sophisticated equipment or facilities,
such as radiographic, biochemical, X-ray

Examples
 Observing midwifes while they conduct delivery service

 Observing health extension workers while they provide ANC service

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 Observation…

Types
 Participant observation

 The observer takes part in the situation he or she observes

 Non-participant observation
 The observer watches the situation, openly or concealed, but does not
participate

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 Observation…

Advantages
o Gives relatively more accurate data on behavior and activities

Disadvantages
o Investigators or observer’s own biases, prejudice, desires, and etc. and
needs more resources and skilled human power during the use of high
level machines

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 2. Questionnaire

 A questionnaire is simply a list of mimeographed or printed

questions that is completed by or for a respondent(s)

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 Types of Questionnaires

1. Interviewer-administered

– face to face

– Telephone

Tadesse A 51
 Types of Questionnaires

2. Self-administered

– by post

– email/Internet

– Administering the questionnaire for the respondent in a room

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 Common problems during data collection might include

o Language barriers

o Lack of adequate time

o Expense
o Inadequately trained and experienced staff

o Invasion of privacy
o Bias
o Cultural norms (e.g. which may preclude men interviewing women)

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 Choosing a method of data collection

 Decision-makers need information that is relevant, timely, accurate and usable

 Some methods pay attention to:

– timeliness and reduction in cost

 Others pay attention to:

– accuracy and the strength of the method in using scientific approaches

 The selection of the method of data collection is also based on practical
considerations, such as:

o The need for personnel, skills, equipment, etc …

o The acceptability of the procedures to the study subjects
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Factors to be considered during designing a tool phase includes:

o Study objectives and major research questions

o Study hypotheses: what data are required to accept or reject a

hypothesis?
o Data to be collected
o Plan for analysis

o Budget; and
o The audience or target population (e.g. can a wife be interviewed in the
absence of the husband?)
o Above all, will the respondents be able to give the required information?

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 Question forms
• Nonstructured questions
– Open-ended
Eg. What do you think about the new abortion legislation?
Explain?
• Structured questions/closed ended
– Fixed-response
1. Do you smoke cigarettes?
___Yes ___No
2. Have you ever watched CNN News?
___Yes ___No

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 Requirements of questions
 Must have face validity

– Appropriate source of information should be inquired

– the question that we design should be one that give an obviously valid
and relevant measurement for the variable
– For example, it may be self-evident that records kept in an obstetrics
ward will provide a more valid indication of birth weights than
information obtained by questioning the mother

57
 Requirements of questions…

 Must be clear and unambiguous

– They must be phrased in language that it is believed the respondent

will understand, and all respondents will understand in the same way

 To ensure clarity, each question should contain only one idea;

– Avoid ‘double-barreled’ questions like:

‘Do you take your child to a doctor when s/he has a cold or diarrhea?’

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 Requirements of questions…

 Must not be offensive

– whenever possible it is wise to avoid questions that may offend

the respondent
– for example those that deal with intimate matters

– those which may seem to expose the respondent’s ignorance

– those requiring her/him to give a socially unacceptable answer

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 Requirements of questions…

 The questions should be fair

– They should not be phrased in a way that suggests a specific answer
and should not be loaded
– Short questions are generally preferable to long ones

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 Requirements of questions…

Sensitive questions
– It may not be possible to avoid asking ‘sensitive’ questions
that may offend respondents
– Taking it at last is recommended

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 Designing of Questionnaire

 Designing a good questionnaire always takes several drafts

 Steps of questionnaire development:
o Content of the questionnaire
o Formulating of the questions

o Sequencing of the questions

o Formatting of the questions
o Translation of the questionnaire

o Pretesting the questionnaire

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 Step1: Content

 Take study objectives and variables as a starting point:

– Decide what questions will be needed to measure or to define your
variables and reach your objectives
– When developing the questionnaire, you should reconsider the
variables you have chosen, if necessary, add, drop or change some of
the variables
– You may even change some of your objectives at this stage

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 Step 2: Formulating Questions

 Formulate one or more questions that will provide the

information needed to measure each variables

– Take care that questions are specific and precise enough that different
respondents do not interpret them differently

– For example, a question such as: “Where do community members

usually seek treatment when they are sick?”

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 Step 2: Formulating Questions…

 The question, therefore, as rule:

– has to be broken up into different parts

– made so specific that all informants focus on the same thing

 Check whether each question measures one thing at a time:

– For example, the question, ''How large an interval would you and your
husband prefer between two successive births?‘’

65
 S t e p 2 : F o r m u l at i ng Q u e st i o n s …

 Avoid professional jargon and abbreviations

 Avoid leading questions

o A question is leading if it suggests a certain response

– ‘Don’t you think that the intrauterine device is safer than the pill?’ It
would be better to ask like: ‘Which do you think is safer, the intrauterine
device or the pill?’

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 Step 3: Sequencing of questions

 Design your interview schedule or questionnaire to be “consumer friendly”

– The sequence of questions must be logical for the respondent and allow as much as
possible for a “natural” discussion, even in more structured interviews

 At the beginning of the interview, keep questions concerning “background

variables” to a minimum
 If possible, pose most or all of these questions later in the interview

 Respondents may be hesitate to provide “personal” information early in

an interview

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 Step 3: Sequencing of questions…

 Pose more sensitive questions as late as possible in the interview

– questions pertaining to income, sexual behavior, or disease with

stigma attached to it, etc…
 Use simple everyday local language
 Make the questionnaire as short as possible

– Conduct the interview in two parts if the nature of the topic requires a
long questionnaire (more than 1 hour interview)

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 Step 4: Formatting the questionnaire

 When you finalize your questionnaire, be sure that:

o A separate, introductory page is attached to each questionnaire, explaining

the purpose of the study, requesting the informant’s consent to be
interviewed and assuring confidentiality of the response
o Each questionnaire has a heading and space to insert the number, date
and location of the interview, if required the name of the informant
o You may add the name of the interviewer to facilitate quality control

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Step 4: Formatting the questionnaire…

 Layout is such that questions belonging together appear together visually

 If the questionnaire is long, you may use sub-headings for groups of

questions
 Sufficient space is provided for answers to open-ended questions if any
 Boxes (codes) for pre-categorized answers are placed in a consistent
manner half of the page

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 Step 5: Translation to local language

 If interview will be conducted in one or more local languages, the questionnaire

has to be translated to standardize the way questions will be asked

 After having it translated you should have it retranslated into the original
language to ensure consistency

 You can then compare the two versions of questionnaire for differences and
make a decision concerning the final phrasing of difficult concepts and
wordings

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 Step 6: Pre-testing the questionnaire

 A pretest is a try-out of the questionnaire

 Pretesting is carried out on a small number of respondents who are

comparable with the sample of correspondents
 It is by doing this, that error and confusing questions can be corrected in
time
 After the pretest interviews are taken, one can modify the questionnaire
accordingly
 To check content and approach of questionnaire
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 Take home assignment
• Design data collection method and tool for
your research proposal
 Factors considered in sample design
• Research objectives
• Resources
• Knowledge of target population
• Degree of accuracy
• Time frame
• Research scope
• Statistical analysis needs

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 Sample size determination
In order to calculate the required sample size, you need
to know the following facts:
1. The reasonable estimate of the key proportion to be
studied. If you cannot guess the proportion, take it as
50%.
2. The degree of accuracy required. That is, the allowed
deviation from the true proportion in the population as a
whole. It can be within 1% or 5%, etc.
3. The confidence level required, usually specified as 95%.

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 Sample size determination …

4. The difference between the two sub-groups and the value

of the likelihood or the power that helps in finding a
statistically significant difference.

 Note that number 4 is required when there are two

population groups and the interest is to compare between
two means or proportions.

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 A. Sample size for estimating a single population mean

• AIM: Estimate µ
• WANT: Estimate ± d units
where d = Margin of error =

 Population 2 can be estimated from

• Pilot or preliminary sample
• Previous similar survey

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B. Sample size to estimate a single
population proportion
• Aim: Estimate p
• Want: Estimate ± d units where d = Z•SE

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C. Sample size for estimating difference in
two means
• Aim: Estimate μ1-μ2
• Want: within ± d units,
where d = Zα/2.SE

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D. Sample size for estimating difference in
two proportions
• Aim: Estimate p1-p2
• Want: within ± d units
where d = Zα/2•SE

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Sample Size Based on Hypothesis Testing

• The method of determining sample size in the

preceding sections takes into account the probability of
a type I error, but not a type II error since the level of
confidence is determined by the confidence level (1-α).
• However, in many statistical inference procedures, type
II and type I errors are considered when determining
the sample size.
• Type I error (α) = The probability of rejecting Ho
when it is true
• Type II error () = The probability of not rejecting Ho
when it is false

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• Power (1-) = the probability H0 is rejected
given that it is false
Ho = There is no difference between the
two groups
Ho: µ1 - µ2 = 0
P1 - P2 = 0
HA = There is a difference between the
two groups
HA: µ1 - µ2 ≠ 0
P1 - P2 ≠ 0
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 A. Comparison between two means (Equal
sample sizes)

∆ = /μ1-μ2/

The means and variances of the two respective groups

are (µ1, 2 ) and (µ2, 22).
1

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B. Comparison between two means (Unequal
sample sizes)

λ =n2/n1

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C. Comparison between two proportions
(Equal sample sizes)

∆ = p1-p2

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D. Comparison between two proportions
(Unequal sample sizes)

Note: This formula is quite general, and applies to cross-sectional, case-

control and cohort studies.

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 EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDY DESIGN

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 Epidemiological
Studies

Descriptive Analytical

Case Case Cross -

Ecological
reports series sectional Observational Interventional

Case -
control RT

Cohort

Cross –
sectional(compara
tive)