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Sampling Techniques Outlines

 Sample definition
& Samples Types  Purpose of sampling
The process of selecting a number of individuals
for a study in such a way that the individuals
 Stages in the selection of a sample
represent the larger group from which they were
 Types of sampling in quantitative researches
selected
 Types of sampling in qualitative researches
 Ethical Considerations in Data Collection

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 A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully Population…

STUDY POPULATION representative) collection of units from a
population used to determine truths about that
population” (Field, 2005) …the larger group from which
individuals are selected to
SAMPLE  The sampling frame participate in a study
A list of all elements or other units containing the
TARGET POPULATION
elements in a population.

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Target population
A set of elements larger than or different
from the population sampled and to which
the researcher would
like to generalize
 To gather data about the population in order
study findings. to make an inference that can be generalized
to the population

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Stages in the
Define the target population
Selection
of a Sample  Important issues
Select a sampling frame
 Purpose – to identify participants from ◦ Representation – the extent to which the
Determine if a probability or nonprobability whom to seek some information sample is representative of the population
sampling method will be chosen
 Issues
◦ Generalization – the extent to which the
Plan procedure for selecting results of the study can be reasonably
◦ Nature of the sample (random samples)
sampling units extended from the sample to the population
◦ Size of the sample
◦ Sampling error
Determine sample size ◦ Method of selecting the sample
The chance occurrence that a randomly selected
sample is not representative of the population
Select actual sampling units due to errors inherent in the sampling technique

Conduct fieldwork

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 Important issues (continued)  Known as probability sampling

◦ Sampling bias  Best method to achieve a representative
 Some aspect of the researcher’s sampling sample
design creates bias in the data.
 Four techniques
◦ Three fundamental steps
1. Random
 Identify a population
2. Stratified random
 Define the sample size
Non- 3. Cluster
 Select the sample Probability Systematic
probability 4.
samples
samples

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1. Random sampling
Selecting subjects so that all members of a population have an
equal and independent chance of being selected  Random sampling (continued) 2. Stratified random sampling
 Advantages ◦ Selection process ◦ The population is divided into two or
1. Easy to conduct  Identify and define the population more groups called strata, according to
High probability of achieving a representative sample  Determine the desired sample size
2. some criterion, such as geographic
3. Meets assumptions of many statistical procedures  List all members of the population
 Assign all members on the list a consecutive number
location, grade level, age, or income,
 Disadvantages
 Select an arbitrary starting point from a table of and subsamples are randomly selected
1. Identification of all members of the population can be
difficult
random numbers and read the appropriate number of from each strata.
digits
2. Contacting all members of the sample can be difficult

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 Stratified random sampling (continued)

◦ Advantages  Stratified random sampling (continued)
 More accurate sample ◦ Selection process
 Can be used for b o th proportional and non-  Identify and define the population
proportional samples
 Determine the desired sample size
 Representation of subgroups in the sample
 Identify the variable and subgroups (i.e., strata) for
◦ Disadvantages
which you want to guarantee appropriate
 Identification of all members of the population can
representation
be difficult
 Identifying mem bers of all subgroups can be
 Classify all members of the population as members
difficult of one of the identified subgroups

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 Cluster sampling (continued)

 Cluster sampling (continued)
3. Cluster sampling ◦ Advantages ◦ Selection process
 Very useful when populations are large and spread over a  Identify and define the population
 The process of randomly selecting intact groups, not large geographic region  Determine the desired sample size
individuals, within the defined population sharing similar
 Convenient and expedient  Identify and define a logical cluster
characteristics  List all clusters that make up the population of
 Do not need the names of everyone in the population
Clusters are locations within which an intact group of clusters

◦ Disadvantages  Estimate the average number of population members
members of the population can be found
 Representation is likely to become an issue per cluster
 Examples  Determine the number of clusters needed by div iding
 Neighborhoods the sample size by the estimated size of a cluster
 School districts  Randomly select the needed numbers of clusters
 Schools  Include in the study all individuals in each selected
cluster
 Classrooms

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4. Systematic sampling
 Systematic sampling (continued)
◦ Selecting every K th subject from a list of the
◦ Selection process
members of the population
 Identify and define the population
◦ Advantage  Determine the desired sample size
 Very easily done  Obtain a list of the population
◦ Disadvantages  Determine what K is equal to by div iding the size of
 subgroups the population by the desired sample size
 Start at some random place in the population list
 Some members of the population don’t have an equal
chance of being included  Take every K th individual on the list

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 According to Uma Sekaran in Research Method for

 Example, to select a sample of 25 dorm rooms in your
college dorm, makes a list of all the ro om numbers in the
dorm. For example there are 100 rooms, divide the total
number of rooms (100) by the number of rooms you want
in the sample (25). The answer is 4. This means that you
are going to select every fourth dorm room from the list.
First of all, we have to determine the random starting
point. This step can be done by picking any point on the
table of random numbers, and read across or down until
you come to a number between 1 and 4. This is your
random starting point. For instance, your random starting
point is "3". This means you select do rm room 3 as your
first room, and then every fourth room down the list (3, 7,
11, 15, 19, etc.) until you have 25 rooms selected.
Business 4th Edition, Roscoe (1975) proposed the rules of Non-probability samples
thumb for determining sample size where sample size
larger than 30 and less than 500 are appropriate for most (Random): allows a
research, and the minimum size of sample should be 30%
procedure governed by chance
of the population.
to select the sample; controls
 The size of the sample depends on a number of factors and
for sampling bias.
the researchers have to give the statistically information
before they can get an answer. For example, these
information like (confidence level, standard deviation,
margin of error and population size) to determine the
sample size.

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1. Convenience sampling:
the process of including whoever happens to disadvantages…
be available at the time
1. Convenience sampling …called “accidental” or “haphazard”
…difficulty in determining how much
sampling
of the effect (dependent variable)
2. Purposive sampling results from the cause (independent
variable)

3. Quota sampling

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2. Purposive sampling:
the process whereby the researcher selects a disadvantages… 3. Quota sampling
sample based on experience or knowledge of
the group to be sampled the process whereby a researcher gathers

…called “judgment” sampling …potential for inaccuracy in the researcher’s data from individuals possessing
identified characteristics and quotas
criteria and resulting sample selections

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Sampling
disadvantages…
in Researchers in qualitative research select

…people who are less accessible (more Qualitative Research their participants

according to their :
difficult to contact, more reluctant to
1) characteristics
participate) are under-represented
2) knowledge

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It is when the researcher chooses 1) Maximal Variation Sampling

2) Typical Sampling It is when you select individuals that differ on a
persons or sites which provide 3) Theory or Concept Sampling certain characteristic. In this strategy you should first

4) Homogeneous Sampling identify the characteristic and then find individuals or

specific knowledge about the topic of
5) Critical Sampling
sites which display that characteristic.
the study. 6) Opportunistic Sampling
7) Snowball Sampling

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It is when you study a person or a site that is
“typical” to those unfamiliar with the situation.
You can select a typical sample by collecting
demographic data or survey data about all
cases.
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It is when you study an exceptional case
represents the central phenomenon in
dramatic terms.
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It is when you select individuals or sites because they
can help you to generate a theory or specific concepts
within the theory. In this strategy you need a full
understanding of the concept or the theory expected
to discover during the study.
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It is used after data collection begins, when you
may find that you need to collect new information
to answer your research questions.
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It is when you select certain sites or people
because they possess similar
characteristics. In this strategy, you need to
identify the characteristics and find
individuals or sites that possess it.
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It is when you don't know the best people to
study because of the unfamiliarity of the topic
or the complexity of events. So you ask
participants during interviews to suggest other
individuals to be sampled.
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 Being respectful of the research site, reciprocity,  Qualitative researchers must be aware of the
using ethical interview practices, maintaining potential for their own emotional turmoil in
privacy, and cooperating with participants. processing this information
 It is the researcher’s ethical responsibility to  During the interview process, participants may

safeguard the story teller by maintaining the  Patton (2002) offered a checklist of general ethical disclose sensitive and potentially distressing
issues to consider, such as: information in the course of the interview..
understood purpose of the research…  reciprocity
 The relationship should be based on trust between  assessment of risk
 confidentiality,
the researcher and participants.
 informed consent
 Inform participants of the purpose of the study.  and data access and ownership.

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 Creswell,J., W. (2012) Educational research:

Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating
Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4th ed.

 Patton,
M.Q. (2002). Qualitative Research and
Evaluation Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.

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