PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

(NOTES/REVIEWER)
LESSON 1: METHODOLOGY (METHOD,
DESIGN & SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
Introduction
The methodology contains the processes and
steps taken in gathering data for the research.
RESEARCH METHOD
⮚ Method are the strategies, processes or
techniques utilized in the collection of data
or evidence for analysis in order to uncover
new information or create better
understanding of a topic.
⮚ Quantitative Research Method - it involves
data collection that is typically numeric and
the researcher tends to use mathematical
models as the methodology of data analysis.
Additionally, the researcher uses the inquiry
methods to ensure alignment with statistical
data collection methodology.
RESEARCH DESIGN
● It refers to an overall strategy that a
researcher uses to logically and
coherently integrate the various
components of a study.
Common Types of Quantitative Research
Design
⮚ Descriptive Design
Goal:
Observe and report on a phenomenon.
Type of behavior, or trait.
The use of scale
Limitations:
Inability to establish causal relationship.
⮚ Correlational Design
Goal:
Determining the increase/decrease
relationship.
Not for cause and effect but for the
association of the variables.
Limitations:
Manipulation is not used.
Variables are measured as they occur
⮚ Expost Facto Design
Goal:
A cause(s) from the existing effects.
Attempts to have causal relationship.
Causes = Effects / Causes = Effect
Limitations:
Doesn’t use experimental manipulation
NOTE:
Last two design can be distinguished with the use
of “Intervention”. An intervention or treatment
involves the manipulation of the independent
variable in the experiment.
* Treatment of Experimental Group
Participants subjected to the intervention
* Controlled Group
Participants not subjected to the intervention
● Quasi Design
Goal:
Causal Relationship between variables.
Occurred during the study itself.
Divides the subjects into intact group
Limitations:
Lack of randomness in this type of research
design.
NOTE:
INTACT GROUPS
Has already been established before the study takes place.
(individuals’ characteristics such as same educational
background, nationality, age bracket etc.)
● Pure Experimental
Goal:
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Also known as the True experimental
Aims to establish cause- effect relationship.
Applies variable manipulation extensively.
Not assigning individuals based on their
characteristics
1. Not all variables can be manipulated or
controlled (EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES) Variable
that can affect your study
2. Some procedures maybe impractical and
unethical.
3. HAWTHORNE EFFECT
refers to the observed change in behavior
due to consciousness that they are under
observations.
RESEARCH LOCALE AND PARTICIPANTS
● Locale - This section explains the place or
environment were the study is being
conducted
● Participants - This section explains the
number and characteristics or descriptions
of participants involved in the study
RESEARCH SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
⮚ is a process through which a researcher selects
portion or segment from the population at the
center of the researcher’s study.
⮚ Population - is a group of persons or objects that
possess some common characteristics that
interest to the researchers and about which the
researchers seek to learn more.
Two groups of Population
o TARGET POPULATION
is composed of the entire group of
people or objects to which the
researcher wishes to generalize the
findings of the study.
o ACCESSIBLE POPULATION
is a portion of population which the
researcher has reasonable access.
NOTE:
Researchers commonly select samples for study
rather than entire population due to constraints in budget,
time and man power. A good example should be
representative of the population, such that
the characteristics of the population –
especially those pertinent to the study – are
reflected on the sample with fair amount of
accuracy.
4 WAYS OF DETERMINING THE SAMPLE SIZE
1. Heuristics
- Normally used in qualitative studies because it
utilizes “Introspection”;
-In n, it refers to the rule of thumb for the sample size
used in a study.
2. Literature Review
- Read similar studies to yours and check the sample
size that they used.
3. Formula
- Determining the size with the use of formula.
* Sample Size Determination Using
Krejcie and Morgan Table Krejcie and
Morgan Table
- The ever increasing need for a representative
statistical sample in empirical research has
created the demand for an effective method of
determining sample size. To address the existing
gap, Krejcie & Morgan (1970) came up with a table
for determining sample size for a given
population for easy reference.
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The Table is constructed using the following
formula for determining sample size:
NOTE:
There is no need of using the formula
since the table of determining sample size has
all the provisions you require to arrive at your
sample size
4. Power Analysis
- it is then used to determine the sample size
sufficient for measuring the Effect Size
o Most précised
o From the principle of Statistical Power
“Quantitative studies often employ
Random Sampling”
TYPES AND SUBTYPES OF SAMPLING
⮚ PROBABILITY SAMPLING - is a type of sampling
in which all the members of an entire population
have a chance of being selected. This is also
called as “SClENTlFlC SAMPLlNG”.
TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
⮚ Simple Random - is a method of choosing
samples in which all the members of population
are given an equal chance of being selected.
There are various ways of obtaining samples
through simple random sampling
(Treece&Treece,1986). These include the fishbowl
method etc.
⮚ Stratified Sampling - the population is
first divided into different strata, and then
sampling follows: Age, gender, and educational
qualifications are some possible criteria used to
divide a population into strata.
⮚ Cluster Sampling
- is used in large-scales studies, where the
population is geographically spread out. sampling
procedures may be difficult and time consuming.
⮚ Systematic Sampling
- is a method of selecting every nth element of a
population e.g., every fifth, eight, ninth, or
eleventh element until the desired sample size is
reached.
“In selecting the sample of the study, the
following elements must be properly
discussed: the total population and its
parameter; the sample and its statistics (if
any); the sampling method with references to
support it; an explanation and discussion of
sampling method; an explanation of how the
sampling was done; an enumeration of
qualifying criteria; the profiles of the subjects
and/or respondents/participants”
LESSON 2: METHODOLOGY (RESEARCH
INSTRUMENT)
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
instruments are tools used to gather data for a particular
research topic.
* Interview and Observation
* Test (Performance test or Paper/Pencil)
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* Questionnaire
TAKE NOTE:
* Observation, interview, assessment of
performance tasks are prone to subjectivity.
Consider having “CODER OR EVALUATOR”.
* INTER CODER OR INTER RATER - agreement refers
to the level of concurrence between the scores
given by two or more raters.
3 WAYS OF DEVELOPING THE INSTRUMENT
FOR (N)
⮚ Adopting - This means that you will utilize an
instrument that has been used in well-known
institutions or reputable studies and publications.
⮚ Modify - To change its content based on your
study.
⮚ Create your own – To formal create your own and
undergo the validity and reliability tests.
INSTRUMENTS VALIDITY
refers in the degree to which an instrument measure what
it is supposed to measure.
* FACE – When it “appears” to measure the
variables being studied. NOTE! This is prone
to subjectivity.
* CONTENT - Degree to which an instrument
covers a representative sample or specific
elements of the variable to be measured
* CONSTRUCT - Degree to which an instrument
measures the variables being studied as a
whole.
* CONCURRENT - When it is able to predict
results similar to those of a test already
validated in the past. e.g. Admission Test=NAT
* PREDICTIVE - When it is able to predict
results similar to those of another
instrument that will be employed in the
future. e.g. College Admission Test
RESEARCH RELIABILITY
refers to the consistency of the measures of an instrument.
It is an aspect Involved in the accuracy of the measurement.
* Test-Retest Reliability - Achieved by
administering an instrument twice to the
same group of participants and computing
the consistency of scores.
o Conduct the retest after a short period
of time
* Equivalent Forms Reliability - Is measured by
administering two tests identical in all aspects
except the actual wording of items.
o Two test have the same coverage. (level
of difficulty)
o PRE-TEST & POST-TEST
* Inter-rater Reliability - Measures the consistency
of scores assigned by two or more raters on a
certain set of results.(fleiss kappa)
* Internal Consistency Reliability - Is a measure of
how well the items in two instruments measure
the same construct.
Three ways to measure I-C reliability:
1. The Split half method/ Split
Half Coefficient
⮚ obtained through administering a
single instrument aimed at
measuring only one construct.
While computing, the results are
divided into two sets for the
comparison
2. Cronbach's Alpha
⮚ Measure's reliability with respect
each item and construct being
examined by the instrument
3. Kuder-Richardson Formula
⮚ Test reliability in terms of
instruments of a dichotomous
nature, such as yes or no tests
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research. Both the selection of
appropriate data collection instruments
LIKERT SCALE QUESTIONNAIRE
(existing, modified, or newly developed)
- is typically a five, seven, or nine- point agreement scale
and clearly delineated instructions for
used to measure respondents' agreement with various
their correct use reduce the likelihood of
statements. Organizational psychologist Rensis Likert
errors occurring.
developed the Likert Scale to assess the level of agreement
or disagreement of a symmetric agree-disagree scale
CONSEQUENCES FROM IMPROPERLY
COLLECTED DATA INCLUDE
GOOGLE FORMS
 Inability to answer research questions
- All validated questionnaire will be transferred into google
accurately
forms as preparation on data gathering
 Inability to repeat and validate the study
 Distorted findings resulting in wasted
INFORMED CONSENT FORM (ICF)
resources
- is a document that explains the objectives of the study
 Misleading other researchers to pursue
and the extent of the participants’ involvement in your
research fruitless avenues of investigation
 Compromising decisions for public policy
CROWN SOURCING (FINDING YOUR Causing harm to human participants and
PARTICIPANTS) animal subjects
- A process used to gather participants by posting on the
different social media platforms. Data Gathering Procedure
- the researchers narrate a systematic
process of collecting data
LESSON 3: METHODOLOGY (DATA
GATHERING PROCEDURE) LESSON 4: METHODOLOGY (DATA
Data Collection PROCESSING TECHNIQUE)
- is the process of gathering and measuring Research Data
information on variables of interest, in an - Research data is any information that
established systematic fashion that has
enables one to answer stated research been collected, observed, generated
questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate or
outcomes created to validate original research
findings.
THE IMPORTANCE OF ENSURING  means the result of observations or
ACCURATE AND APPROPRIATE DATA experimentation that validate research
COLLECTION findings and that are published separate
- Regardless of the field of study or to the Article, which can include but are
preference for defining data (quantitative, not limited to raw data, processed data,
software, algorithms, protocols, and
qualitative), accurate data collection is
methods
essential to maintaining the integrity of
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TYPES OF RESEARCH DATA
1. Observational Data - are captured
through observation of a behavior or activity. It
is collected using methods such as human
observation, open- ended surveys, or the use
of an instrument or sensor to monitor and
record information.
2. Experimental Data - are collected through
active intervention by the researcher to
produce and measure change or to create
difference when a variable is altered.
3. Simulation Data - are generated by imitating
the operation of a real-world process or
system over time using computer test models.
4. Derived/Compiled Data - involves using
existing data points, often from different data
sources, to create new data through some sort
of transformation, such as an arithmetic
formula or aggregation.
What is Data Processing Technique?
 This stage of the research process involves the
organization of the collected information as well as
the elimination of unnecessary and problematic
ones. Specifically, data processing involves editing,
coding, tabulating, and summarizing information
through graphs and tables.
1. Editing - Is a process wherein the data
collected are checked for consistency,
accuracy, organization, and clarity.
2. Coding - Is a process where the gathered
data are classified into categories,
numerals, symbols, or other systems of
labelling.
3. Tabulation - Is a process of condensing
the raw data into a more compact form.
Table is used for this purpose.
Presentation & Interpretation of Tables
& Graphs
NON PROSE MATERIAL- is a graphic or visual
representations of sets of data or information.
Two non- prose materials:
 Tables - Classify information using columns
and rows.
 Charts - Unlike tables, graphs do not merely
list down the collected data with respect to a
certain category. Graphs use bars, lines,
circles and picture in representing the data.
1. Bar Graph - contains vertical and
horizontal bars and comparisons of
amounts and quantities.
2. Line Graph - shows trends and changes in
the data
3. Circle Graph - also known as PIE GRAPH -
shows the relationship of parts to a whole,
usually in percentages and proportions.3
SEVERAL FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN
INTERPRETING GRAPHS
 Date and time
 Start your graph interpretation by naming
the figures you are attempting to explain.
 Begin with explaining what the graph is
about.
Observe the following when organizing
your results/data:
 INTELLECTUAL HONESTY – utmost
objectivity and integrity in one’s research.
 FALSIFICATION - refers to the changing of
data.
 FABRICATION - refers to making up data or
results.
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LESSON 5: DATA ANALYSIS (USING
STATISTICAL TECHNIQUE)
Five of the most common used specific can be used
in quantitative analysis:
1. Pearson’s R - Is a method used for
determining whether there is a linear
relationship between variables. This
relationship is indicated by the Pearson’s r
coefficient.
o Pearson’s R Three (3) possible
outcomes:
 Positive Correlation - means that
when the numeral value of one
variable increases or decreases,
the other variable increases or
decreases as well.
 Negative Correlation - indicates
that as the numerical value of one
variable increases, the other
variable decreases and vice
versa.
 No Correlation - means that the
two variables have no
relationship with each other.
o Visual Representation: SCATTER PLOT
 is a set of points that displays the
relationship between two
variables.
 Each dot represents the
relationships between two
variables according to
observation.
 The closer the dots are to one
another, the tighter the
relationship is between the
variables.
2. Spearman Rho - Is a statistical
technique that tests the relationships
between ordinal variables. Uses ranking,
the highest value should be ranked first.
The values for Spearman’s rho closer to 0
indicate a weal relationship, while those
that are closer to 1 indicate a strong
relationship. A scatter plot can also be
used to plot values analyzed using the
spearman’s rho test.
3. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) - Is a
statistical tool used for testing differences
among two or more groups of samples.
The ANOVA considers both variation
“within” and “between” the sample groups.
o Two main types of ANOVA:
 One-way ANOVA - Tests
differences among groups
concerning one variable.
 Two-way ANOVA – Tests differences
among groups concerning two
variables.
4. Multiple Regression - Is a statistical tool
used for testing the relationship between
one dependent variable and at least two
independent variables.
5. T-Test - Are statistical technique that
tests the difference between data sets
from two groups.
o Statistical Values that need to be
computed first:
 Mean
 Variance
 Standard Variation
o Two types of T-Test
 T-TEST FOR TWO DEPENDENT
SAMPLES (PAIRED TEST) - The
sample groups are highly related
to each other or involving the same
subjects
 POOLED STANDARD VARIATION -
Refers to the weighted average of
the
standard deviation for the individual
groups
o T-Test Statistical values that need to be
computed first:
 MEAN - refers to the average score
of a given set of values.
 Variance - refers to how spread out
the values are across the data set
you are studying. It helps you
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determine if the data are close to the
mean or not.
 STANDARD DEVIATION - is the square
root of the variance.
The Alpha Level (Significance Level) - refers to the
probability value that must be reached before
claiming that the findings obtained are statistically
significant.
 0.05 – Social Science | 0.01 or 0.001
Physical, Natural, and Life Sciences
P- Value - Calculated probability that is compared
to the alpha level. This comparison helps
determine if there is a statistical difference
between two groups being compared. (Pre and
Post)
Degree of Freedom - Which refers to the number
of values in the final computation of statistic that
have freedom to vary.
Hypothesis Testing - Is the process of determining
whether there is sufficient statistical evidence to
support your hypothesis.
P-Values Approach - Determines how extreme
your findings must be leaning to the alternative
hypothesis.
LESSON 6: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results and Discussion
 It reports and explains the data
that you have obtained in your research.
 It can be considered the “MEAT” of your
paper.
o M-monitoring
o E-evaluating
o A-assessing, and
o T-treatment.
Results - Presents the data that you have
collected. This portion limits itself to the
presentation of facts and key findings as they are.
Discussion - provides the explanation for the
results that you have reported. The discussion
portion is an important part of a research paper
because it tests your skills in thinking critically,
solving problems, as well as in understanding and
explaining phenomena.
Conclusion - To make a lasting impression.
 Summary of Findings
 Conclusion Drawn
 Limitation of the study
 Useful recommendations
Summary - Briefly states your major findings
that correspond to each of the research questions
or objectives.
Conclusion - Discusses the generalizations,
deductions and inferences that can be obtained
from your findings.
o Practical Implication - relate to the issues
in real-life contexts that can be addressed
through the findings.
o Theoretical Implications - Relate to the
issues concerning the support, refutation
and supplementation of existing models
and concepts in your field of study.
o Methodological Implications - Relate to
the issues concerning materials and
processes in research.
Limitation of the study - Refers to the factors that
the researchers fail to control or use and can be
addressed by subsequent studies.
Recommendations
 First Section - Provide an actual course of
action through which
these areas of concern can be addressed
 Second Section - Considered with stating
how future studies can address the
limitations encountered in your research.
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LESSON 7: FINAL FULL MANUSCRIPT
ABSTRACT - IS CONSIDERED THE OVERVIEW OF A
RESEARCH PAPER.
HOW TO DEVELOP YOUR RESEARCH ABSTRACT?
1. Introduce the topic
- Explain and define your topic briefly. It
should be formal and the words
should be coming from researcher
him/herself.
2. Cite important RRL/RRS found in your
research paper
- Briefly indicate the most helpful
literature of your research that
will support your claim.
3. Summarize the content of your
methodology
- Briefly share the design, sampling
technique, instrument, data analysis,
and data gathering procedure.
4. State the findings, main conclusion, and
recommendation
- Briefly state the main findings,
conclusion, and recommendation
of your research.
NOTE:
250 words are expected to be the maximum count
of words for your abstract. Put your abstract inside
an open box and choose 5 distinct words from your
research paper that will serve as your keywords.
APPENDICES MAKING - a compilation of all
pertinent document your research paper has. This
is seen after the reference list of your research
paper.
 Appendix A - sample letters.
Include here the plain copy of your
consent form or any letter that you used in
the scope of your research paper.
 Appendix B - Sample instrument.
Include here the copy of your clean
instrument.
 Appendix C - Raw data
Insert here the tables and/or the
tabulation/s you used that you never got to
include in your manuscript.
 Appendix D- Curriculum vitae
A document for a person’s background and
authentic information.
GUIDELINES IN MAKING CV:
1. Provide 2x2 picture - each of the
researchers should provide a copy of their
most recent picture with white background.
Paste it on the upper right corner of the
paper. On the upper left, include your full
name, address, email address, and
cellphone number
2. Answer the following individually:
o Education
o Award/Recognition Received
o Personal Information
3. Don’t forget this sentence
o I hereby certify that all information
above is true and correct with the best
of my knowledge and ability.
4. Write down your full name and an e-
signature above your name
o UNDER YOUR NAME WRITE,
RESEARCHER AS YOUR DISTINCTION.
5. Appendices should not have its page
number