MARKETING MANAGEMENT 344

CHAPTER 12: SAMPLING

INTRODUCTION
 The sampling process involves drawing conclusions about an entire
population by taking measurements from only a portion of all
population elements
 A sample is a subset of some larger population that researchers observe or
measure in some way in an effort to estimate what the entire population is
like
 Sampling is defined in terms of the population being studied
 A population (universe) is any complete group whose members share some
common set of characteristics
 Population element: Each individual member of a population
 A census is an investigation involving measurement of all the
individual elements that make up the population
Learning objective 12.1: Explain reasons for taking a sample rather than a complete census.

WHY SAMPLE
PRAGMATIC REASON

 Constraints usually prevent researchers concerned with large

populations from using data derived from a census
 On the other hand, a researcher who wants to investigate a population
with an extremely small number of population elements may elect to
conduct a census rather than a sample because the cost, labour, and time
drawbacks would be relatively insignificant
 Advantages to sampling:
- cuts costs
- reduces labour requirements
- gathers vital information quickly

ACCURATE AND RELIABLE RESULTS

 another reason  most properly selected samples give results that

are reasonably accurate
 If the elements of a population are quite similar, only a small sample
is necessary to accurately portray the characteristics of interest
 A sample may even on occasion be more accurate than a census

DESTRUCTION OF TEST UNITS

 Example: Even if it was possible to test every grape prior to the harvest, this
would mean there would be nothing left to make wine with
 the test units have been destroyed or ruined for the purpose of the
research project
Learning objective 12.2: Describe the process of identifying a target population and
selecting a sampling frame.

IDENTIFYING A RELEVANT POPULATION AND SAMPLING FRAME

7. 6. Select 3. Determine4. of
Plan
a procedure
5. Determine
Conduct1. Define the actual 2. Select a for selecting
probability or
Sample Size
fieldwork target sampling Sample sampling units
nonprobability
population units Frame sampling method
will be chosen

DEFINING THE TARGET POPULATION

 What population are we trying to project?

 What larger group is intended to be represented by using a sample?
 The population must be defined accurately for the research to produce good
results
 One approach for defining the target population is to ask and answer
questions about crucial population characteristics  Examples of
questions:
- Is a list available that matches our population?
- Who are we not interested in?
- What are the relevant market segment characteristics?
- Are we only interested in a regional population? If so, how do
we determine the borders?
- Should the study include multiple populations?
 Answers to these questions help researchers and decision-makers focus on
the right populations of potential respondents

THE SAMPLING FRAME

 Sampling frame: A list of elements from which the sample may be drawn
 It is also called the working population because these units will eventually
provide units involved in analysis
 A sampling frame error occurs when certain sample elements are excluded
or when the entire population is not accurately represented in the
sampling frame

Sampling Service

 Sampling service or list brokers: firms who specialise in providing lists or

databases that include the names, addresses, phone numbers, and e-mail
addresses of specific populations
 A reverse directory provides, in a different format, the same
information contained in a telephone directory
 Listings may be by city and street address or by phone number, rather
than alphabetically by last name
 Online Panels

 Lists of respondents who have agreed to participate in marketing

research along with the e-mail and contact information of these
individuals
 panel managers can easily stratify the entire sampling frame on
many characteristics of interest and provide a narrower sampling
frame representing:
- a specific occupation
- users of particular online services
- recent purchasers of some durable goods

SAMPLING UNITS

 The sampling unit is a single element or group of elements that is eligible

for selection via the sampling process
 Primary sampling unit (PSU): a unit selected in the first stage of sampling
 Secondary sampling unit (SSU): a unit selected in a successive stage
of sampling
 Tertiary sampling unit (TSU): when three stages are necessary
 When there is no list of population elements, the sampling unit generally is
something other than the population element  In a random-digit-dialling
study, the sampling unit will be telephone numbers

Learning objective 12.3: Compare random sampling and systematic (nonsampling) errors
with an emphasis on how the internet is intertwined

RANDOM SAMPLING AND NONSAMPLING ERRORS

 When does a statistical error occur: if a difference exists between the value
of a sample statistic of interest and the value of the corresponding
population parameter
 Two basic causes of differences between statistics and parameters
- random sampling errors
- systematic (nonsampling) error
 An estimation made from a sample is not the same as a census count
 random sampling error is the difference between the sample result and
the result of an accurate census
 Random sampling error occurs because of chance variation in the selection
of sampling units

RANDOM SAMPLING ERROR

 is a technical term that refers only to

 statistical fluctuations that occur because of chance variations in the
elements selected for the sample

SYSTEMATIC ERROR

 Systematic (nonsampling) errors result from nonsampling factors, primarily the

nature of a study’s design and the correctness of execution
 These errors are systematic in some way and not due to chance fluctuations
  Errors due to sample selection problems are nonsampling errors and
should not be classified as random sampling errors

Systematic but not obvious sampling error

 Facebook surveys allow researchers to reach a large sample rapidly both

an advantage and a disadvantage
- Sample size requirements can be met overnight or in some cases
almost instantaneously
- a survey released during the middle of the day, just like a phone
sample conducted in the middle of the day, is likely to exclude people
with full- time jobs in a systematic way because they are at work 
the survey should probably remain active for a minimum of 12 hours
 The ease and low cost of an Internet survey also contributes to the flood
of online questionnaires
 As a result, frequent Internet users may be more selective about which
surveys they bother answering
 students who cared about the issues were more likely to respond to the
online survey

Website visitors

 sample website visitors by selecting sampling units randomly

 use software to trigger a pop up survey to each one-hundredth visitor
for example
 the software can also adjust the triggering of the survey based on
information gathered on the respondent’s Web behaviour
 Respondents who are selected to participate are first prompted to see if
they would like to participate
 If the person clicks “Yes,” the site presents the questionnaire as a pop-up or
as a new browser window
 Randomly selecting website visitors can cause a problem by overrepresenting
frequent visitors  programming techniques such as cookies contain
information that reveals the frequency of visits

Panel Samples

 Consumer panels provide a practical sampling frame in many situations

 Panels become particularly useful in screening out sampling units who do
not fit the characteristics of a relevant population
 Panel sampling frames may contain a high proportion of respondents who
simply like to fill out questionnaires or give their opinion  opportunity for
sample bias

Opting In

 Opt in: respondent decided on his/her own accord to respond and provide
data for the researcher
 Anyone who visits the page can potentially become part of the sample that
responds to the particular survey
  it is important not to send unauthorised e-mail to respondents  A
researcher cannot expect high response rates from individuals who have not
agreed to be surveyed
 Presuming the goal is to generalise to some population, if the low response
rates do not occur systematically, the researcher should conclude that some
characteristic correlates with responding  If that’s the case, then the
sample’s ability to generalise is damaged
 care needs to be taken to make sure the questions don’t cause certain types
of people to respond more than other types of people

LESS THAN PERFECTLY REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES

 Random sampling errors and systematic errors associated with the

sampling process may combine to yield a sample that is less than perfectly
representative of the population
 nonsampling errors (sampling frame error and nonresponse error) related
to sample design:
- Sampling frame errors eliminate some potential respondents
- Random sampling error (due exclusively to random, chance fluctuation)
may cause an imbalance in the representativeness of the group
- Additional errors will occur if individuals refuse to be interviewed or
cannot be contacted
- Additional errors will occur if individuals refuse to be interviewed or
cannot be contacted  nonresponse error may also cause the sample to
be less than perfectly representative

Learning objective 12.4: identify the types of nonprobability sampling, including their
advantages and disadvantages.

PROBABILITY VERSUS NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING

 Main alternative sampling plans:
- probability sampling: every element in the population has a
known, nonzero probability of selection
- nonprobability sampling: the probability of any particular member of
the population being chosen is unknown
Non-probability sampling techniques:

CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

 convenience sampling: sampling by obtaining people or units that are

conveniently available
 Researchers generally use convenience samples to obtain results quickly
and economically
 research looking at cross-cultural differences in organisational or
consumer behaviour typically uses convenience samples
 Rather than selecting cultures with characteristics relevant to the hypothesis
being tested, the researchers conducting these studies often choose
cultures to which they have access
 convenience sampling limits how well the research represents the
intended population
 Convenience samples are best used for exploratory research when additional
research will subsequently be conducted with a probability sample
 University professors conducting marketing research will frequently use a
student sample out of convenience  The use of student sampling is
inappropriate when the researcher intends the results to generalise to a
larger population

JUDGEMENT SAMPLING

 Judgment (purposive) sampling: technique in which an experienced

individual selects the sample based on his or her judgment about
some appropriate characteristics required of the sample member
 Researchers select samples that satisfy their specific purposes, even if they
are not fully representative

QUOTA SAMPLING

 Quota sampling: ensures that the various subgroups in a population are

represented on pertinent sample characteristics to the exact extent that the
investigators desire
 The interviewer is responsible for finding enough people to meet the quota
 Aggregating the various interview quotas yields a sample that represents
the desired proportion of each subgroup

Possible sources of bias

 Quota samples tend to include people who are easily found, willing to be
interviewed, and middle class
 Fieldworkers exercise considerable leeway in the selection of actual
respondents
 Interviewers often concentrate their interviewing in areas with heavy
pedestrian traffic such as downtowns, shopping malls, and college campuses
 Those who interview door-to-door learn quickly that quota requirements are
difficult to meet by interviewing whoever happens to appear at the door
Advantages of Quota Sampling

 speed of data collection, lower costs, and convenience

 carefully supervised data collection may provide a representative sample of
the various subgroups within a population

SNOWBALL SAMPLING

 Snowball sampling: involves using some process for selecting a few initial
respondents and then uses those respondents to seek out additional
respondents
 The approach can be useful when the relevant market segment is
narrow and potentially difficult to reach otherwise
 Reduced sample sizes and costs are clear-cut advantages of snowball
sampling
 bias is likely to enter into the study because a person suggested by someone
also in the sample has a higher probability of being similar to the first person
 If there are major differences between those who are widely known by
others and those who are not, this technique may present some serious
problems

PROBABILITY SAMPLING

 All probability sampling techniques employ chance selection procedures

 The random probability process eliminates bias inherent in
nonprobability sampling procedure
 random refers to the procedure for selecting the sample members and
not the data in the sample
 Randomness characterises a procedure whose outcome cannot
be predicted because it depends on chance

Learning objective 12.5: Summarise various types of probability samples.

Probability Sampling:

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

 Simple random sampling: ensures that each element in a population has

an equal chance of being included in a sample
 Example:
- Small population  drawing names or numbers out of a fishbowl,
rolling dice, or turning a roulette wheel to draw a small sample
- Big population  can be based on tabled random numbers or computer-
generated random numbers
o A number is first assigned to each element of the population
 The random-digit dialing technique of sample selection requires that a
telephone interviewer identify the exchange or exchanges of interest and
then use a table of numbers to select the next four numbers
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

 Systematic sampling: a sampling procedure in which a starting point

is selected by a random process and then every nth number on the list is
selected
 Choose every 2000th name for example:

 Although systematic sampling is not actually a random selection procedure, it

does yield random results if the arrangement of the items is not in some
sequence corresponding to the interval in some way

STRATIFIED SAMPLING

 Stratified sampling: a probability sampling procedure in which simple random

subsamples that are more or less equal on some characteristic are drawn
from within each stratum of the population
 reasons for taking a stratified sample is to:
- obtain a more efficient sample than would be possible with
simple random sampling
- ensure that the sample will accurately reflect the population on the basis
of the criterion or criteria used for stratification
o This is a concern because occasionally simple random sampling yields
a disproportionate number of one group or another, and
consequently, the sample ends up being less representative than it
could be
 How to choose a stratified sample:
- a variable (sometimes several variables) is identified as an efficient
basis for stratification
o A stratification variable must be a characteristic of the population
elements known to be related to the dependent variable or other
variables of interest
o The variable chosen should increase homogeneity within each
stratum and increase heterogeneity between strata
o The stratification variable usually is a categorical variable or one
easily converted into categories
- for each separate subgroup or stratum, a list of population elements
must be obtained
o Using a table of random numbers or some other device, a separate
simple random sample is then taken within each stratum

PROPORTIONAL VERSUS DISPROPORTIONAL SAMPLING

 proportional stratified sample: a stratified sample in which the number of

sampling units drawn from each stratum is in proportion to the population size
of that stratum
 Sampling more heavily in a given stratum than its relative population
size warrants is not a problem if:
- the primary purpose of the research is to estimate some
characteristic separately for each stratum
- researchers are concerned about assessing the differences among strata
  Disproportional stratified sample: a stratified sample in which the sample size
for each stratum is allocated according to analytical considerations
- The logic behind this procedure relates to the general argument for
sample size  As variability increases, sample size must increase to provide
accurate estimates
- the strata that exhibit the greatest variability will be sampled more
heavily to increase sample efficiency  produce smaller random
sampling error

CLUSTER SAMPLING

 Cluster sampling: an economically efficient sampling technique in which

the primary sampling unit is not the individual element in the population but
a large cluster of elements; clusters are selected randomly
 The area sample is the most popular type of cluster sample
 Cluster sampling is classified as a probability sampling technique because of
either the random selection of clusters or the random selection of elements
within each cluster
 Cluster samples become attractive when lists of a sample population are not
available
 Ideally a cluster should be as heterogeneous as the population itself

MULTISTAGE AREA SAMPLING

 Multistage area sampling is a cluster sampling approach involving

multiple steps that combine some of the probability techniques already
described
 Typically, geographic areas are randomly selected in progressively
smaller (lower-population) units

Learning objective 12.6: Discuss how to choose an appropriate sample design.

WHAT IS THE APPROPRIATE SAMPLE DESIGN?

DEGREE OF ACCURACY

 Selecting a representative sample can be crucial for a researcher desiring to

make accurate predictions or forecasts
 the degree of accuracy required or the researcher’s tolerance for sampling
and nonsampling error may vary from project to project, especially when
cost savings or another benefit may be a trade-off for a reduction in
accuracy

RESOURCES

 The cost associated with the different sampling techniques

varies tremendously
 Managers concerned with the cost of the research versus the value of the
information often will opt to save money by using a nonprobability
sampling design rather than make the decision to conduct no research at
all

TIME

 A researcher who needs to meet a deadline or complete a project quickly

will be more likely to select a simple, less time-consuming sample design
ADVANCE KNOWLEDGE OF THE POPULATION

 Advance knowledge of population characteristics, such as the availability of

lists of population members, is an important criterion
 A lack of adequate lists may automatically rule out systematic sampling,
stratified sampling, or other sampling designs, or it may dictate that a
preliminary study be conducted to generate information to build a sampling
frame for the primary study

NATIONAL VERSUS LOCAL PROJECT

 Geographic proximity of population elements will influence sample design

 When population elements are unequally distributed geographically, a
cluster sample may become much more attractive
 CLASS NOTES

Will definitely be in one test if not two, will have to be able to give all the steps

Steps:

1. define the target population

2. select a sampling frame
3. probability or non probability
4. procedure
5. determine sample size
6. select actual sampling units
7. conduct fieldwork

Step 1: Target Population

 a complete group of entities (a complete group of consumers in the case of

Lindt) who share one or more characteristics
- their age, income, what they like to do and buy etc
 who should be represented in my sample?
 about who do I want to make conclusions?
 it is creating a profile for the type of person that you are looking for and that
is relevant to the study
 target sample  a subset or part of a population
 what about the sample?
- make assumptions about an entire population
- by taking measures from only a part/subset of the total population
of people
- textbook definition: make assumptions about an entire population by
only asking certain people’s opinions —> opposite of a census
 target population
- about who do I want to make conclusions?
- Who should be represented in my sample?
- Who are the people towards which my product aimed/my study is about?
 why do we sample?
- Pragmatic reasons
o need to ask everyone in population and sometimes it is not feasible
o by doing only a sample and doing a sample correct you will get
the same result you would get when going to the whole
population
- need to ask everyone in population and sometimes it is not feasible
- by doing only a sample and doing a sample correct you will get the
same result you would get when going to the whole population

Step 2: sampling frame

 sampling frame is a list (that provides you with the contact information) in our
target market of all the elements (people) in a specific population
 first thing you need → who is your target population? can you get/create
a list with everyone’s details
 you need to be able to reach the person who’s details you have
 if you create a list, can you create one with all the elements?
  Likert scales are ordinal scales because it is subjective
 For the categorical measurements there are no averages
 Sampling frame (ask two questions):
- Do I have access to a list?
- Can we create a list?
 Sampling frame = yes  either have access or can create one
- If you have one then you do a probability sample
- If you need to be able to generalise to the entire population, then
you also have to do a probability sampling
- Even if the case study says nothing about a list but that we have
to generalise, then probability sampling is the way to go
- Probability sampling: each person in the population is able to be
selected for the study  because they have a chance to be selected,
their chance is non-zero
 Sampling frame = no  then you have to do non-probability sampling
- If the case study says you do not have a list then you do non-probability
sampling
- Non-probability: the chance that any member of the population is
selected is not known and doesn’t have an equal chance to be
selected
o Our people are chosen usually based on judgment or convenience
 Summary of differences:
Probability sampling Non-probability sampling
= sampling frame = no sampling frame
Each element In the population has a The chance that any member of the
known (non-zero) probability of being population is selected is not known or
selected to take part in the study equal
Marketing research list = 144 Students who went into research = ?
Sample = 70 Sample = 70
48% chance of being selected ??% chance of being selected
You pick people off a list Don’t have a list and no way of
contacting people

Step 3: choose a sampling technique to use (probability or non-probability)

Probability Non-probability
Simple random sampling Convenience sampling
Systematic sampling Judgement sampling
Stratified sampling Quota sampling
Cluster sampling Snowball sampling
Multi-phase sampling Multiphase sampling
NON-PROBABILITY

Convenient sampling

 Select people as respondents based on who is conveniently available to the

researcher
 Questionnaire measures if the selected person does form part of population
  Aim of the study: to investigate if there is a difference in online
purchase behaviour of millennials
 Population: millennials who have been purchasing online for at least 6 months
 Sample: conveniently select marketing 344

Judgement sampling

 select respondents based on judgement on whether or not they possess some

applicable character trait that is relevant to your target population
 Questionnaire must confirm these characteristics
 Secondary research helps you to make a judgement call
 Aim of the study: to investigate if there is a difference in online
purchasing online for at least 6 months
 Population: millennials who have been purchasing online for at least 6 months
 Sample: select students based on judgement

Quota sampling

 Is undertaken to ensure that a specific subgroup of the population is

represented, based on a specific characteristic relevant to your study
 Take the quota of the males and females that are in South Africa
 Rule for picking between an equal split and a disproportionate one for
sample  could come from secondary research:
- If you want to compare two groups with each other, then the quota is
50/50
- Have the sample represent the profile of the population, then
use disproportionate figures like 30/70
 Also known as multistage sampling
 Aim of the study: to investigate if there is a difference in online
purchase behaviour of millennials
 Population: millennials who have been purchasing online for at least 6 months
 Sample: 50:50 quota on gender

Snowball sampling

 Use current respondents to refer the researcher to more (similar) respondents

 Referral method
 Acceptable for niche market
 When the researcher asks the respondent to do the sampling for them
by distributing the questionnaire to those who are like them
 Lazy method of sampling  don’t be lazy
 Aim of the study: to investigate if there is a difference in millennials'
online purchase behaviour of water polo gear
 Population: millennials who have been purchasing water polo gear online for
at least 6 months
 Sample: Stellenbosch university water polo students
Multiphase sampling  pg 344

 Means that we employ more than one of these techniques in the study
 Aim of the study: to investigate if there is a difference in millennials'
online purchase behaviour of water polo gear
 Sample with different sampling units
- First sample an area: Start with Stellenbosch because it is convenient (first
level)
- Sportsman’s Warehouse Eikestad Mall  judge that the people who
go to Sportsman’s Warehouse will be open to purchasing water polo
gear
- Millennials etc  convenience

PROBABILITY

Sample random

 Pick people off a list as random

 Don’t write the word random in a non-probability sampling method, it’s a
very strategic “random”
 Draw a name out of a hat  the names come from the list
 Or use computer generated random number programs

Systematic sampling

 My target population comprises of 144 people

 List=144 people’s name
 Take the amount of people in your sampling frame and divide it by the
 Simple random and systematic sample you need a lot of money

Stratified sampling

 Divide the population not subgroups

 Strate  some characteristic in your data sampling that you find necessary
to represent in your sample to get a good feel of how your population should
feel
 Based on a characteristic trait that they share
 Probability version of quota
 If you have a broad population you need a lot of time and a lot of money
 Simple random sampling  to pick your people from your strata
 Would sometimes not make sense to compare a small group with a big
group because you will probably work out averages per group  choose
disproportionate sampling
 Assumptions can be incorrect because the sizes aren’t the same
Proportionate N=50 Disproportionate
Hons = 13% Hons = 50%
Not-hons = 87% Not-hons = 50%
Hons = 13 Hons=25
Not-hons = 83 Not-Hons=25
Representative profile
Cluster sampling

 Divide population into clusters

 Primary sampling unit is not a person in the target population, but rather
a cluster of elements in the target population
 Difference:
- Stratified sample: Sample from all of your strata
- Cluster sampling: Only sample from some/few of your clusters (you had
5 groups but you decide to only sample from one or two of the 5
groups)
 Clusters chosen at random
 Simple random sampling  after the clusters are chosen
 A lot cheaper because you only choose a few clusters
 The “names” you draw from a hat will now for example be provinces that
you will decide on doing your sampling
 Do it when you don’t have a lot of time or money

 Also indicate which one of the techniques within the method you will be
using when you answer a question in the test

Step 5: Determine sample size

 Won't have to calculate sample size in the test, just rewrite what they
provide you with in the case study and you will get a mark for that

Step 4: Sampling Procedure

 Explain how you will use your sampling technique to select your sampling unit
 Levels will come into play  primary, secondary, tertiary sampling unit
 There is a difference between defining your target population and defining
your sample
 When we do something to our procedure we are making our target market
smaller because we are sampling

Example: Absa

 Primary sampling unit: researcher chooses the western cape because it

is convenient and they live in the province or they do not have the time
or money to go to other provinces
 Secondary sampling unit:
- same reasoning as primary
- Pick Stellenboch out of convenience because you live here and
you don’t have the time and money to go to other places in the
western cape
 Tertiary sampling unit:
- choose the Neelsie branch out of judgement
- you need people who do online banking
 - you make a judgement based on the data that you know or can get on
the neelsie that there are many students that use the absa branch in
the neelsie
- statistics show that students are of a generation group that do a lot
of online judgement
- therefore the judgement is that if you go to a branch where a lot of
student bank you will get people from the population who do online and
offline banking so you will probably get your target population there
 when you do the procedure, you explain how are you going to get a
sampling technique to get to a sampling unit

If you do nonprobability sampling (where you don’t have a list):

 Step 6 + Step 7 is merged

 You stand in Absa neelsie branch for example and you approach
people and ask them to take part and they fill in the survey then and
there

If you do probability sampling (where you have a list):

 Step 6: select actual sampling units  what you do with the list
- You can select people before you ask them to take part in your
study because you have a list to
- Describe what you will do with your sampling frame such as you
put them in alphabetical order or give them a number
 Step 7: conduct fieldwork
- how you approach them when you contact them (email, phone, link to
survey) / what do you do with them when you contact them
- The idea of fieldwork is that your fieldwork group go out into the field
to collect the data  our field is virtual because we send out a survey
and therefore our field is virtual
- Who: the person responsible for collecting responses in field
- Can be awkward, expensive and not easy
- Important:
o Your study is only as good as the data you collect
o Poor interviewing = poor results
o Your data is only as good as the fieldwork you are going to do
- Fieldwork training:
o Brief the fieldworkers on the project
o Who is the target population
o How to select a potential respondent and how to approach them
o All participants need to be giving the same kind of information and
needs to
o When to end a questionnaire
- Three ways to probe when you are not completely satisfied with
a participant’s response:
o Repeat the question  often people will elaborate on the answer
 o Repeat the respondent’s answer  people will also be more
willing to elaborate
o Use the silent probe  look puzzled or intrigued, no one likes silence
so they will want to elaborate

Data analysis

 Is there a relationship between x and y?

 Is there a difference in y given x
 We collect data so that we can analyse it later on  through coding and
editing, we get data that is analysable
 Raw data: The unedited (edit and code) responses from a respondent
exactly as indicated by the respondent
 Coding: assigning a numerical code for each answer
- Starts at questionnaire development
- Ensuring that data is legible by a program like Excel or SPSS
- By making use of a coding sheet  what number has been assigned to
a question in the questionnaire
 Editing: ensuring respondent answering were completed consistent and
legible (for excel) for data to be processed  it helps us to look for
survey errors
 Will be ask you to draw up a coding sheet in an exam  example:
Item number Codes
Q1-Q16 1 = strongly disagree
2 = disagree
3 = neutral
4 = agree
5 = strongly agree
Q17 1 = strongly agree
2 = agree
3 = neutral
4 = disagree
5 = strongly disagree
Q18 Open ended??
Q19 Open ended??

 Excel won’t know if a question is negatively phrased, so you will have to

switch it around on your side so that excel can take all of the items with
the same balance to code it