Unit 3: Collecting, Organizing, Treating, and Analyzing Data

Main Ideas: Data is present everywhere and can be analyzed to reach conclusions and make decisions
Essential Question: What is the difference between methodology and methods? How are these related to your research design?

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 Setting boundaries
(Sampling)
Data Collection
Establishing data
management protocol
Figure 1.0 The Data Collection Procedure
A general outline of the data collection procedure. Though it appears short,
each step has its thorough guidelines and procedures.
Sampling
The process by which a researcher identifies the
representative of a population to be used in his/her study.
Flick (2009) outlined areas of the research process where
sampling decisions are applied:
• Case sampling - Identifying your target participants
• Sampling groups of cases – Determining where you
get these participants
• Material sampling – Identifying which tools you will
use on the participants to collect data
• Sampling within the material – Determining what
collected data will you use or analyze
• Presentational sampling – Choosing which data
should be used to represent the outcomes of the
study
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Types of Sampling Methods
i. Probability/Statistical Sampling
- This is used when an accurate representation of the
entire population is needed in the sample. It gives
all representatives of the entire population to be
selected as a sample.
- It is often used in quantitative research rather than
qualitative research. Relies on a statistical analysis
of the population.
i. Simple Random Sampling
Samples are identified randomly with the help of
statistical and mathematical computations.
ii. Stratified Random Sampling
The population is divided into different
groups/strata based on criteria set by the
researcher. The researcher then randomly
identifies individuals from these groups.
iii. Cluster Sampling
This is similar to stratified randomly sampling, but
instead of grouping them based on criteria set by
the researchers the individuals are randomly
selected from naturally occurring groups (e.g.
sections in a school)
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 iv. Multistage Sampling
This type of sampling is a combination of stratified
random and cluster sampling. It consists of multiple
stages of grouping: first from naturally occurring
groups and then groups based on criteria set by the
researcher.
v. Systematic Sampling
This method of sampling is the easiest since it only
requires the researcher to set a fixed interval to
determine the sample. For example, in a population
of 100 individuals, the researcher can choose to
select every 5th member until he reaches 50
representatives
Figure 2.0 Types of Probability Sampling
There are five (5) general types of probability sampling commonly used in
research. The circles represent the population, while those colored yellow are
the selected samples. Top Left: simple random sampling; Top Middle:
stratified random sampling; Top Right: cluster sampling; Bottom Left:
multistage sampling; Bottom Right: systematic sampling.
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ii. Non-probability Sampling
- This is used when the population can not/does not
need to be sampled to represent the target
population and so individuals do not have an equal
chance of being sampled. The researcher is
selective of its population and sample (e.g., not all
individuals can be sampled, or the researcher does
not need to sample all individuals).
- It is often used in qualitative research rather than
quantitative research.
i. Purposive Sampling
Samples are targeted and selected based on a
criterion set by the researcher. These criteria are
based on the research objectives and questions
that the study aims to answer (e.g. a study that
wants to study smoking habits would only select
individuals who are smokers)
ii. Convenience Sampling
The sampling group is identified by the
convenience of the researcher (e.g. nearby, already
familiar). Groups are determined based on their
availability rather than randomness from the
population. This method of sampling does not
guarantee an accurate representation of the
population but can be useful in collecting
preliminary data.
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 iii. Snowball Sampling Methods of Data Collection
The identification of the sample group is Observation/Fieldwork
accumulative and can come from populations not It is a method that is used when a participant can be
initially known by the researcher. For example, if a observed directly. There are five (5) types of observations:
researcher wants to study the impact of Alzheimer's Participant, Nonparticipant, Systematic/Structured,
on family members, but they don't know a lot of
Unstructured, and Simple/Contrived observations.
patients. They can ask the patients they know for
Advantages Disadvantages
others like them.
• The researcher has first- • The researcher may be
hand experience with the seen as intrusive
iv. Quota Sampling participant. • "Private" information may
Very similar to purposive sampling wherein the • The researcher can record be observed that the
population is filtered based on a criterion set by a information as it occurs. researcher cannot report.
researcher. However, in quota sampling, they are • Unusual aspects can be • The researcher may not
looking for specific characteristics in individuals that noticed during the have good attending and
observation observing skills
may or may not directly link to the research
• Useful in exploring topics • Certain information (e.g.
question/objective (e.g. age, sex, religion). that are difficult or children may present
uncomfortable for the special problems in gaining
participants to discuss. rapport)

1. Participant Observation
− The researcher is immersed for prolonged periods
of time in the setting where the
participants/phenomenon is to be observed.

2. Non-participant Observation
Figure 3.0 Types of Non-probability Sampling
There are four (4) general types of non-probability sampling commonly used
− This is similar to participant observation except that
in research. In this study, they want to know if immigration affects a person's the researcher is NOT immersed in the setting or
opportunity to get a job. The triangles represent immigrants, and those colored
yellow are the selected samples. Top Left: purposive sampling; Top Right:
the participants are not aware of the researcher's
convenience sampling; Bottom Left: snowball sampling; Bottom Right: quota presence.
sampling.

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3. Structured or Systematic Observation
− It is when the researcher establishes specific rules
for the observation and schedule (e.g. they will be
observed for two (2) hours inside the school). The
participant is informed ahead of time of these rules.
4. Unstructured Observation
− It is the complete opposite of structured observation
where there are no rules or guidelines set for the
observation. This allows a more freeform or
narrative means of data collection.
5. Simple and Contrived Observation
− In both methods, the participant is unaware of the
researcher and the researcher does interact or
involve themselves with the setting.
− For simple observations, the researcher cannot
change any factors in the setting.
− For contrived observations, the researcher can
change or has control over some factors in the
setting. This is useful when the goal is to see how
participants react to specified situations.
Observation Guide
1. Determine the venue
Will the setting be based on who, what, and when the
observation will take place? Is the venue within your
limitations (e.g. logistical and financial consideration)?
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2. Prepare how you will enter the field
How will you present yourself (researcher, observer,
participant)? How will you handle issues that arise due
to the venue? How about issues involving participants?
3. Identify the things to observe
What will you look for? (People who stand out, number
of people entering/exiting the setting, personal space,
behaviors, verbal/non-verbal interactions, or
appearance)
4. Prepare means of data collection and what type of data
you will collect
What data type will you collect? (notes, videos, audio,
formal and informal interviews, counts/frequency,
process flows, or lists)
5. Organize your data
Can you capture it quickly and accurately? What
devices can you use? When will you analyze the data?
6. Define how long the observation is
How long will you need to get the data? Will this span
multiple days?
7. Determine when you will exit
Do you need to revisit? Is your data complete? Did you
thank your participants? Did you get a contact file of
the participants?
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Interviews Interview Guide
It is a method that is used when a participant can be 1. Develop an interview framework by reviewing your
observed directly. There are four (4) types of interviews: research objectives and questions. The guide should
Structured, Semi-structured, and Unstructured interviews. ask and answer the following items:
Advantages Disadvantages i. What are the main research questions that the
• Useful when the participant • Provides "indirect" interviewees are intended to answer? – You are
cannot be directly observed information filtered through
expected to get a list of high-order research
• Historical information can the views of interviewees
be collected. • Provides information in a
questions. These are NOT your interview questions
• Allows research "control" designated "place" rather but rather these are the questions that will
over the line of questioning than the natural setting immediately answer your research objectives.
• Researcher's presence may
bias responses ii. What are the primary domains of content that should
• Not all people are equally
be covered in the interview? – You are expected to
articulate and perceptive.
identify domains or subtopics that are important
1. Structured interview
features of your research objective.
− These are "oral questionnaires". The researcher
asks a list of predefined questions that only permits
iii. What types of data are needed to provide these
limited participant responses.
answers? – You are expected to get the types of
data that you will gather based on the question
2. Semi-structured interview
above.
− The researcher begins with a set of key questions
however the participant is given more freedom to 2. Develop a guidepost in preparing your interview guide.
explain certain topics. This should consider the following items:
i. Create a flow of topic areas to be discussed
3. Unstructured interview ii. Formulate questions that answer your researcher
− This is the opposite of structured interviews. questions/objectives but are not too specific
iii. Try to use language that is easy to understand for
Participants will be asked one (1) general question the participant
and can explain their responses in depth. Further iv. DO NOT ask leading questions
questions will be based on their answers.

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 v. Always ask for a database of personal information, Analysis of Documents and Audio-Visual Materials
or face sheet, for general (age, gender, etc.) and It is a method often used as a means of validating data
specific (position, number of years, etc.) information. collected through other methods. It is the analysis of
documents or materials to give meaning around an
3. Prepare different types of questions: introducing,
follow-up, probing, specifying, direct, indirect, and assessment/topic. Documents and materials can be (1)
interpreting questions. Note that these can be arranged public records, (2) personal documents, (3) artifacts, (4)
in varying order and should allow time for silence and video, or (5) drawings/pictures.
thinking.
Advantages Disadvantages
4. Consider the setting, technical requirements, logistics, • Written documents are • Provides "indirect"
and practice interviews. manageable and practical information filtered through
resources that are "non- the views of interviewees
5. Identify a successful interviewee. They should be reactive", which allows the • Provides information in a
knowledgeable, structured (in terms of responses), researcher to review it designated "place" rather
clear, gentle yet assertive, open, critical, remembering, multiple times. than the natural setting
and able to interpret things. • Documents are common • Researcher's presence may
and highly accessible since bias responses
6. Plan what to do after an interview. Makes notes on how it comes in a variety of • Not all people are equally
it went, where it took place, feelings about the interview forms. articulate and perceptive.
(both the researcher and participants perspective), and • It is a cost and time-efficient
the setting of the interview. method of data collection.
Process of Document Analysis (O'Leary, 2014)
7. Consider some final tips for the interview such as: 1. Create a list of texts to explore
i. Prepare for the unexpected interviewee behavior or 2. Consider how texts will be accessed with attention to
issues with the setting linguistics or cultural barriers
ii. Be aware and avoid intrusion of biases or 3. Acknowledge and address biases
expectations 4. Develop appropriate skills for research
iii. Maintain focus in asking questions 5. Consider strategies for ensuring credibility
iv. Be careful when talking about sensitive issues 6. Know the data to look for.
v. Always transcribe information as accurately as 7. Consider ethical issues (e.g. confidentiality, copyright)
possible

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Validation
This refers to the integrity and application of the methods
taken by the researcher, as well as the precision and
relevance of his/her findings.

1. Content Validity
2. Construct validity
3. Criterion-based validity
4. Triangulation

References
Melegrito, M. F., Mendoza, D. J., & Mactal, R. B. (2017). Applied Research: An
Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods and Report Writing. Quezon
City: Pheonix Publishing House, Inc.
Statistics Solutions. (2019). Dissertation Consulting Services. Retrieved from Statistics
Solutions: Advancement Through Clarity:
https://www.statisticssolutions.com/dissertation-consulting-services
Sullivan, L. (26, July 24). The Role of Probability. (W. M. La Morte, Producer) Retrieved
from Boston University School of Public Health:
http://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/MPH-
Modules/BS/BS704_Probability/index.html
Torneo, A., & Clamor-Torneo, H. (2018). An Introduction to Qualitative Research:
Practical Research 1. Quezon City: Sibs Publishing House, Inc.
Triad 3. (2016, March 9). An Introduction to Document Analysis. Retrieved from
Research Methodology in Education: https://lled500.trubox.ca/2016/244

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