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Unit 5: Collecting, Organizing, Treating, and Analyzing Data

Main Ideas: Data is present everywhere and can be analyzed to reach certain conclusions and make decisions
Essential Question: How are data, results, and discussion different from each other?

Methods for
Based on Methods for
What to look for Validation
Your: Exploration
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Data Cleaning/Preparation
− Data cleaning or preparation is meant to transform your data into
manageable formats. Raw data is managed by converting audio
or video files into transcripts, and images into photos or charts.
− This step is focused on identifying which data is relevant and
usable.
Data Exploration
− Data exploration is divided into four (4) repetitive steps:
Chunking, clustering, coding, and memoing. Proper data
exploration should have at least two (2) or three (3) cycles.
− The goal of data exploration is to categorize and refine your data
to identify themes and trends to be used in making
discussions/conclusions.
− Chunking is the act of breaking down your cleaned data and
determining which parts are for what purpose (e.g., is this about
participant information, background, examples provided, etc.).
− Clustering is the act of taking these chunks and classifying them
according to labels or basic codes.
− Coding, on the other hand, is focused on creating labels and
categories that represent the data accurately. Codes should be
specific and refined so that they answer and relate to the
research question. These can start as general and then become
specific. There are three (3) patterns or levels of coding:
o Descriptive to Interpretative to Pattern – move from
summary to meaning
o Open to Axial to Selective – moves from initial theory to
developing relationships between codes for the emerging
theory
o First to the second cycle – moves from describing the data
units to inferring meaning
− Memoing is the act of taking these codes and clusters and then
adding notes that help explain or define them.
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Data Interpretation and Presentation
− Chunks are clustered into categories which are then coded into
similar categories. From these codes and clusters, themes
emerge that can answer the research question posed.
− Since Interpretation and presentation are simultaneous, there
are different methods by which you represent your data.
o Narrative – focused on telling a story using the results.
o Chronological – according to the narrative described by each
participant. Useful in case studies.
o Critical Incidents – focused on the main incidents, not the
participants
o Thematic – data is presented in a way that it revolves around
a particular theme
o Visual representation – data can be presented as charts or
tables. Visual representation should be thought of carefully
when being used in qualitative research. Remember that you
should not quantify your results if it isn’t necessary.
− There are multiple ways to present your data in a written
manner. Below are some common patterns in writing qualitative
results and discussions.
o Write the main idea first, then a detailed account from the
participant.
o Write a description of the participant's account, then feature
it.
o Join both the participant's account and your interpretation
(results and discussion). This is often discouraged.
Validity
This is used in qualitative research to verify or check if the data
collected from the procedures performed by the researcher is accurate
and can support the proposed discussions (Haradhan, 2017). There
are four (4) types of validity that can be performed for qualitative
research.
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b. Discriminant Validity – determines the lack of relationship

1. Content validity
It is the extent to which the questions on the instrument and the scores
from these questions represent all possible questions that could be
asked about the content or skill (Creswell, 2005).
a. Face Validity – this is the minimum index of content validity.
This tests the degree by which the results or instrument
measures the concept being measured.
2. Criterion-based validity
It is used to predict current or future performances by correlating
results with another criterion of interest (Burns et al., 2017).
a. Concurrent Validity – relates the results to an already
established/validated set of scores.
b. Predictive Validity – relates the results to a future criterion to
predict some form of behavior.
3. Construct validity
It is used when the goal of the study is to construct theories to
understand better and predict behavior (Thatcher, 2010).
a. Convergent Validity – determines the correlation of different
results. This tests the relationship among variables.
among certain variables according to theory and empirical
evidence.
4. Triangulation
Triangulation relies on multiple validation methods to verify the results
of a study. This can be done by any of the following methods:
a. With different investigators – the instrument is used on various
sample groups OR is delivered by a different set of
researchers.
b. With different research methods (same research type) –
another qualitative approach is used to collect data which will
then be used to validate the initially collected data. (e.g., using
document analysis to validate observations).
c. With different research methods (different research types) – a
quantitative approach is used to validate the qualitative results
collected. This is usually done in mixed research with
statistical analysis.

References
Billups, F. D. (2014). Qualitative Data Analysis NERA Webinar Presentation. New York:
Northeastern Educational Research Association.
Haradhan, M. (2017, December 24). Two Criteria for Good Measurements in Research:
Validity and Reliability. Munich Personal RePEc Archive, 3(17), 58-82.
Retrieved from https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/83458/
Melegrito, M. F., Mendoza, D. J., & Mactal, R. B. (2017). Applied Research: An
Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods and Report Writing. Quezon
City: Pheonix Publishing House, Inc.
Statistics Solutions. (2019). Dissertation Consulting Services. Retrieved from Statistics
Solutions: Advancement Through Clarity:
https://www.statisticssolutions.com/dissertation-consulting-services
Torneo, A., & Clamor-Torneo, H. (2018). An Introduction to Qualitative Research:
Practical Research 1. Quezon City: Sibs Publishing House, Inc.
University of Southern California. (2019, December 16). Research Guides: 8. The
Discussion. Retrieved from USC Libraries:
https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/discussion

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