Business

Research Methods

William G. Zikmund

Chapter 7: Qualitative Research Tools

 After studying this chapter, you
should be able to
1. List and understand the differences between qualitative
research and quantitative research

2. Describe the basic qualitative research orientations

3. Prepare a focus group interview outline

4. Recognize common qualitative research tools and know

the advantages and limitations of their use
 Qualitative versus Quantitative
Research
• Purpose
– Exploratory versus descriptive and conclusive
• Small versus large samples
• Broad range of questioning versus
structured questions
• Subjective interpretation versus statistical
analysis
Qualitative versus Quantitative Research
 Orientations to Qualitative Research

Phenomenology represents a philosophical approach to studying

human experiences based on the idea that human experience itself is
inherently subjective and determined by the context in which people live.

The phenomenological researcher focuses on how a person’s behavior is

shaped by the relationship he or she has with the physical environment,
objects, people, and situations. Phenomenological inquiry seeks to
describe, reflect upon, and interpret experiences.

As an approach, the research respondent is asked to tell a story about

some experience. In addition, the researcher must do everything possible
to make sure a respondent is comfortable telling his or her story.
 Orientations to Qualitative Research
Ethnography represents ways of studying cultures through
methods that involve becoming highly active within that culture.
Participant-observation typifies an ethnographic research approach.
Participant observation means the researcher becomes immersed
within the culture that he or she is studying and draws data from his
or her observations.

A culture can be either a broad culture, like American culture,

or a narrow culture, like urban gangs, Harley-Davidson owners, or
skateboarding enthusiasts.
For instance, a researcher investigating the ethical behavior of
salespeople may have difficulty getting a car salesperson to reveal
any potentially deceptive sales tactics in a traditional interview.
 Orientations to Qualitative Research

Case studies simply refer to the documented history of

a particular person, group, organization, or event. Typically, a
case study may describe the events of a specific company as
it faces an important decision or situation, such as introducing
a new product or dealing with some management crisis.
Common Techniques Used in
Qualitative Research
Focus Group Interviews

• Unstructured
• Free flowing
• Group interview
• Start with broad topic
and focus in on
specific issues
 Group Composition

• 6 to 10 people
• Relatively
homogeneous
• Similar lifestyles and
experiences
 Outline for a Focus Group
• Establish a rapport
• Begin with broad topic
• Focus in on specific topic
• Generate discussion and interaction
 The Moderator

• Develops rapport -
helps people relax
• Interacts
• Listens to what people
have to say
• Everyone gets a
chance to speak
 The Focus Group Moderator
• Maintains loose control and focuses
discussion
• Stimulates spontaneous responses
 Advantages of Online
Focus Groups
• Fast
• Inexpensive
• Bring together many participants from
wide-spread geographical areas
• Respondent anonymity
• Transcript automatically recorded
 Disadvantages of Online
Focus Groups
• Less group interaction
• Absence of tactile stimulation
• Absence of facial expression and body
language
• Moderator’s job is different
 Depth Interviews
A one-on-one interview between a professional
researcher and a research respondent conducted about
some relevant business or social topic.
Laddering is a term used for a particular approach to
probing, asking respondents to compare differences
between brands at different levels.
What usually results is that the first distinctions are
attribute-level distinctions, the second are benefit-
level distinctions, and the third are at the value or
motivation level.
 OBSERVATION
The participant-observer approach typifies how observation can
be used to explore various issues. Meaning is extracted from
field notes.

Field notes are the researchers’ descriptions of what actually

happens in the field. These notes then become the text from
which meaning is extracted.

Observation may also take place in visual form. Researchers

may observe employees in their workplace, consumers in their
home, or try to gain knowledge from photographic records of
one type or another.
 Free-Association/Sentence Completion
Method
Word Association

• Subject is presented with a list of words

• Asked to respond with first word that comes
to mind
 Word Association Examples

• GREEN • Money
• Lawn
• Eggs and Ham
 Word Association Examples

• CHEESE • Kraft
• Cheddar
• Goat
 Sentence Completion
People who drink beer are ______________________

A man who drinks light beer is ___________________

Imported beer is most liked by ___________________

A woman will drink beer when____________________

Thematic Apperception Test [T.A.T.]

A test that presents subjects with an ambiguous picture(s) in

which consumers and products are the center of attention; the
investigator asks the subject to tell what is happening in the
picture(s) now and what might happen next.
 1) Data reduction – Select which
aspects of the data are to be
emphasized, minimized, or set aside
for the project at hand.
2) Data display – Develop a visual
Analysis of interpretation of the data with the use
of such tools as a diagram, chart, or
Qualitative matrix. The display helps to
Data illuminate patterns and
interrelationships in the data.
3) Conclusion drawing and verification
– Consider the meaning of analyzed
data and assess its implications for the
research question at hand.

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 It is important to be aware of the
specific things that various
computer programs can do for you.
These include:

•[NL][TTL]Coding. Programs can

Analysis of help you segment or “chunk” your
Qualitative data and assign codes to key words
or to “chunks.”
Data •Memoing/Annotation. Programs
can allow you to make side notes
that correspond to sections of your
data. These side notes can help to
provide meaning to the data.

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 • Data Linking. Programs can help
you keep track of relationships
between different parts of the
database, including your
transcripts, codes, and memos.
Analysis • Search and Retrieval. Programs
can allow you to search for
of specific words or strings of
words using Boolean requests.
Qualitati • Conceptual/Theory
Development. Programs can
ve Data help you develop a theory with
the use of rule-based hypothesis
testing or by building semantic
networks.

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 Data Display. Programs can show
results onscreen or even with split
screens.
Graphics Editing. Programs can help
you create and edit networks composed
of nodes connected by links.
 
Analysis of Some of the most popular software
Qualitative packages are XSight and NVivo
([URL]www.qsrinternational.com),
Data ATLAS.ti ([URL]www.atlasti.com),
CATPACII ([URL]
www.terraresearch.com), and
Ethnograph
([URL]www.qualisresearch.com).
These Web sites offer information about
the software packages and also sample
demonstration copies.

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