CHAPTER 4
sample characteristic is rare
Quantitative Research Design- used as the standard
experimental method of most scientific disciplines
Sampling
 the process of selecting units (e.g., people,
organizations) from a population of interest
(Trochim, 2006)
 Can be explained as a specific principle to select
members of population to be included in study
(Proctor, 2003; Dudovskiy, 2016)
Population-a large collection of individuals or objects
that is the main focus of a scientific query
Sample
 part of the population that is representative of the
population from which it was selected
 a smaller group of members of a population
selected to represent the population (Houghton
Mifflin Harcourt, 2016)
TWO CATEGORIES OF SAMPLING METHODS
1. Probability Sampling-every member of
population has a known chance of participating in
the study
 Simple Random Sampling-the purest form
of sampling. It provides equal chances of
being picked for each member of the target
population
 Systematic Random Sampling-we create
a list of every member of the population
 Stratified Random Sampling-the
population is divided into groups, based on
some characteristics.
-Involves the use of “stratum” or a subset
of the target wherein the members possess
one or more attributes
 Cluster Sampling-every member of the
population is assigned to one, and only one
group
 Multistage Sampling-we select a sample
by using combinations of different sampling
methods
2. Non-Probability Sampling-sampling group members
are selected on non-random manner, therefore not each
population member has a chance to participate in the
study
 Quota Sampling-uses a convenience sampling
approach as the researcher will be the one to
choose the necessary number of participants per
stratum
 Purposive Sampling-the researcher selects
participants according to the criteria he has
 Volunteer Sampling-made up of people who
self-select into the survey
 Convenience Sampling-made up of people who
are easy to reach
 Judgment Sampling-the researcher
selects the sample based on judgment
 Snowball Sampling-used when the desired
Research Instruments
 measurement tools designed to obtain data on
a topic of interest from research subjects
(EBSCO Help, 2017)
 generic term that researchers use for a
measurement device (Biddix, 2017)
Intervention-something that comes between two things
or something that changes the course or something
CLASSIFICATION OF INTERVENTION STUDIES
1. Individual vs. Group (Community) Trials
A. Controlled Clinical Trials-individual subjects are
assigned to one or another of the competing
interventions
B. Community Interventions-assigned to an entire
group
2. Prevention Trials vs. Therapeutic Trials
A. Preventative Trials-conducted to evaluate whether
an agent or procedure reduces the risk of developing a
particular disease among individuals free from that
disease at the beginning of the trial
B. Therapeutic Trials-conducted among individuals with
a particular disease to assess the effectiveness of an
agent or procedure
3. Cross-over Trials vs. Randomized Controlled
Trials
A. Cross-over Trials-the subjects are first assigned to
the treatment group and, after a brief interval for
cessation of residual effect of the drug, are shifted into
the placebo/alternative group
B. Randomized Controlled Trial-considered as the
most rigorous method of determining whether a cause-
effect relationship exists between intervention and
outcome
Research Data-distinct pieces of information, usually
formatted in a special way
Data-refers to information like facts or numbers,
collected to be examined and considered for use to help
decision-making. It is also a plain facts
Information-when the data are processed, organized,
structure or presented in a given context so as to make
them useful
Quantitative Survey-paper surveys pose closed
questions, with the answer options provided
Quantitative Interview-comprised of a prepared set of
standard questions
A. Face to face interviews
B. Telephone or online, web based interviews
C. Computer-assisted interviews
Quantitative Observation-involves using the senses
and keen observation skills to get the data
Experiments-involve manipulation of an independent
variable while maintaining varying degrees of control
over other variables
A. Laboratory experiments-data collector being able to
have strict control over all the variables
B. Field experiments-data collector may not be in full
control of the variables, he is still able to do so up to a
certain extent
C. Natural experiments-data collector has no control
over the independent variables whatsoever, which
means it cannot be manipulated
Quantitative Data Analysis-systematic approach to
investigations during which numerical data is collected
and the researcher transforms what is collected or
observed into numerical data
COMMONLY USED DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
1. Frequencies-count of the number of times a
particular score or value is found in the data set
2. Percentages-express a set of scores or values as a
percentage of the whole
3. Mean-numerical average of the scores or values for a
particular variable
4. Median-numerical midpoint of the scores or values
5. Mode-the most common score or value for a
particular variable
6. Minimum and maximum values (range)-the highest
and lowest values or scores for any variables
BASIC INFERENTIAL STATISTICAL TEST
1. Correlation-seeks to describe the nature of a two
variablesrelationship between
2. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)-tries to determine
whether or not the means of two sampled groups is
statistically significant or due to random chance
3. Regression-used to determine whether one variable
is predictor of another variable
Univariate data- used for the simplest forms of analysis.
Analysis are made only based on one variable
Bivariate data- used for little complex analysis than as
compared with univariate data. Analysis are based on
two variables per observation simultaneously
Multivariate data- used for explanatory purposes.
Analysis are based on more than two variable per
observation
CHAPTER 5
In-Person Interviews-the most personal approach and
most effective way of gaining trust and cooperation from
the respondent
Telephone Interviews-less expensive than in-person
interviews and may be more or less expensive than
mailings, depending on the numbers involved
Mailed Questionnaires-give people time to think about
their responses and to use resources at home or work
when responding
Online Questionnaires-may well be the least expensive
way to reach the greatest number of people
Quantitative data-information you collect in numerical
form
Descriptive statistics-can help summarize your data
and identify key findings while inferential analyses can
help you draw conclusions about your results
Descriptive analysis-used to reduce your raw data
down to an understandable level
Frequency distribution-table or charts that show how
many of your evaluation participants fall into various
categories of interest
Central tendency-the number that best represents the
“typical score” such as the mean, median, and mode
Variablity-amount of disagreement in your result
Measure of Central Tendency (Measures of Central
Location)-a single value that attempts to describe a set
of data by identifying the central position within that set
of data
STATISTICAL TESTS
1. Mann-Whitney U-test-test for differences between
two independent groups on a continuous measure
2. Spearman Rank Correlation Test-demonstrate the
relationship between two ranked variables
3. Kruskal-Wallis Test-compare the means among
more than two samples, when either the data are ordinal
or the distribution is not normal
t-Test-assess whether the means of two groups are
statistically different from each other
Pearson Correlation-find a correlation between at least
two continuous variables
TWO DIFFERENT TYPE OF CHI-SQUARE TEST
 One type of chi square test compares the
frequency count of what is expected in theory
against what is actually observed
 Second type is known as a chi-square test with
two variables or the chi-square test for
independence
FOUR LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT RESEARCH PAPER RESEARCH REPORT
Long document (around Short document
1. Nominal-non numerical and places an object within a
25 pages or more) (around 8 pages or less)
category (ex. Male or female)
Purpose is to convince Purpose is to inform
2. Ordinal-ranks data from lowest to highest Has clear, arguable General Discussion
Thesis
3. Interval-indicates the distance of one object to the Contains details Contain summaries
next (Detailed) (Condensed)
You use data and ideas Summarizes information
4. Ratio-has an absolute zero point to as evidence to gathered
support your position
Statistical significance-determine whether the results You analyze and Present analysis and
are significant enough to truly make a connection interpret information interpretation
Your unique perspective Does not result in new
CHAPTER 6 and conclusion knowledge
Summary of findings-is organized by topics in
accordance to the problem of the study

Conclusions-logical and valid outgrowths upon the

findings

Bias-business establishments, agencies, or

organizations usually present or manipulate figures to
their favor

Incorrect Generalization-made when there is a limited

body of information or when the sample is not
representative of the population

Incorrect Deduction-happens when a general rule is

applied to a specific case

Incorrect Comparison-a basic error in statistical work is

to compare two things that are not really comparable

Abuse of Correlation Data-a correlation study may

show a high degree of association between two
variables

Research References-list of all the sources you have

used in your project

References- American Psychological Association (APA)

generally used by disciplines within the Social Sciences

Works Cited- Modern Language Association (MLA)

generally used by disciplines in the humanities

Bibliography- Turabian style used in many disciplines

in humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences

Chicago style-used in both the humanities and social

sciences

Research Report- condensed version of your research

project. It is a typed document of about 6-12 pages in
length and consists of the important information about
the research you undertook

Research Colloquium-a forum where students are

exposed to the most current research in the field of
interest like education, communicative sciences and
others