--------------Methodology--------------
Probability Sampling
- presents the methods, strategies and
techniques utilized by the researchers to obtain
the data needed for study.
Parts of Methodology
1. Introduction
- informs the readers of what is to
follow.
2. Population and Sample of the Study
- informs the readers who would be the
participants of the study and where it will
happen.
A. Population
- set of elements which may be
persons or objects that possess common
characteristics defined by the sampling
criteria established by a researcher.
B. Sample
- the selected elements from a
population which may be persons or
objects and are chosen using an
appropriate sampling technique utilized
by the researcher.
- In getting an adequate sample,
Slovin’s Formula is one of the most
N respondents.
common formula used: n=
1+ Ne2
Where: n = sample size
N = total population
E = margin of error (%)
Sampling Techniques
- is the process/act of selecting a group
of people, events, behaviors or other elements
which to conduct a study/research and to gather
data from.
Kinds of Sampling Techniques
I.
- makes you base your section on pure
chance.
Types of Probability Sampling
i. Simple-Random Sampling- an entirely
random method of selecting the sample.
ii. Systematic Sampling- selecting every
subject from a list of members of the population
(ex. Odd Class Numbers).
iii. Stratified Sampling- the total population is
divided into sub-groups (strata) and some
members of the strata are selected as
participants.
iv. Cluster Sampling- sample consists of
elements from the selected groups in the
population.
II. Non-Probability Sampling
- techniques focusing on choosing
respondents purposefully.
Types of Non-Probability Sampling
i. Quota Sampling – population is divided into
categories; elements are then selected from each
category (ex. 50% male and 50% female in the
total population of PCS).
ii. Voluntary Sampling – volunteered
iii. Purposive Sampling – samples are chosen
by choice through the judgment made by the
researcher based on his/her knowledge.
iv. Availability sampling- the process of
including whoever happens to be available at the
time.
v. Snowball- recommendation of participants of
possible participants who can join.
Sample Size- the number of individual samples
measured used in a survey.
Margin of Error- is the allowed degree of error
in results meaning the higher the margin of error
the likelihood of results in the survey.
C. Setting
- the physical, social and
cultural site in which the researcher
conducts the study.
3. Data Gathering Procedures and Tools
- tells how the researcher will be done
and the method to be used.
A. Instrumentation
- the process of constructing
research instruments that could be used
appropriately in gathering data on the
study.
B. Research Design
- the overall strategy that the
researcher choose to integrate the
different components of the study in a
coherent and logical way.
C. Data Gathering Procedure
- it is the flow of distribution
and gathering of data.
- details the actual steps on how
data were gathered which should start
with the very first step down to the
implementation and/or retrieval of the
instruments.
D. Data Analysis
- the way on how the gathered
data will be analyzed and interpreted.
- it is where the gathered data is
ordered and organized so that useful
information can be extracted from it.
Steps in Analysing Data for Quantitative
Research
Step 1: Preparing the Data
I. Coding System
- convert the words, images or pictures
into numbers for them to become fit for any
analytical procedures.
II. Data Tabulation
- for easy classification and distribution
of numbers based on certain criterion you have
to collate them with the help of table.
Step 2: Analysing Data
I. Descriptive Statistical Technique
- provides a summary of the orderly and
sub sequential data obtained from the sample
through the data-gathering instrument used.
i. Measure of Central Tendency
(Mean, Median, Mode)
ii. Frequency Distribution
II. Inferential Statistical Technique
- analysis that involves the use of a more
complex statistical method.
- usually dealing with describing and
making inferences about the population.
i. One Sample T-Test
ii. Two Independent Sample T-
Test
iii. Paired Sample T-Test
iv. Analysis of Variance
(A.N.O.V.A.)
v. Person’s R Coefficient of
Correlation
vi. Chi-Square
vii. Spearman’s Rho
viii. Regression Analysis
Standard Deviation- is a measure that shows
how spread out numbers are.
---------Research Instrument---------
- refers to the tool or device used by the
researcher to measure and gather the needed
data.
- it should be usable where it should be
administered and interpreted in an easy manner.
- must also be both valid and reliable.
- an instrument is valid when it directly
answers or addresses the research questions.
- an instrument is reliable when it
provides consistent and stable data over a period
of time.
- selecting the instrument and data
collection method should be parallel with the
research design.
Types of Research Instrument
1. Survey
- contains planned questions which are used
to measure attitudes, perceptions and opinions.
- it contains responses directly related to
each specific research question.
Types of Questions in Survey
A. Recall
- asks for specific information such as
service, age and address.
B. Recognition
- asks for a response to a specific question
where options are given such as in the case of
multiple choice, dichotomous (yes/no) and
rating scale format.
C. Open-Ended
- elicits brief explanations from the
respondent.
2. Interview
- an instrument that allows the researcher to
qualitatively gather data.
- responses during an interview are usually
lengthy and may vary across the different
research participants/respondents.
Types of Interview Base on Structure
1. Structured Interview
- uses a research instrument called
“interview schedule” which is made up of
carefully prepared and logically ordered
questions.
2. Unstructured Interview
- is open and flexible, and the contents,
sequence and wordings of the questions depend
upon on the researcher which makes use of an
interview guide which is the list of topics that
will be taken up during the interview process.
Types of Interview Base on Participant
1. In-Depth Interview
- interview with a single individual
typically lasting from 30 to 90 minutes.
- may be conducted in person at a research
facility, the respondent’s home or workplace or
a public location or by telephone.
2. Dyads, Triads
- interviews with 2 or more people who
often represent members of the same family or
business teams, who use a product or service
and/or make purchase together.
3. Paired Interviews
- consecutive or interlocking interviews
with 2 people who use and/or make purchase
decisions together.
4. Focus Group
- a moderator-led discussion among a group
of individuals who share a need, habit or life
circumstance relevant to the research issue at
hand.
- often includes 2 to 10 respondents.
Stages of Interview
A. Pre-Interview Stage
- it is when a guide is prepared and
respondents are identified and contacted.
B. Warm-Up Stage
- it is the initial part of the interview when
questions that will make respondents more at
eased are asked.
C. Main Interview Stage
- it is when main questions directly related
to the researcher to the research questions are
asked.
D. Closing Stage
- it is when questions are asked to wind
down the interview and respondents are
acknowledged and thanked.
3. Questionnaire
- it is more quantifiable.
- lists written questions to get specific
information.
- responses in a questionnaire are usually
dichotomous and use an identification type of
test.
- open-ended questions are incorporated in
the questionnaire.
Parts of a Questionnaire
A. Personal Information Section
- includes the name(optional), age, date of
birth, address, educational background and other
personal information about the respondent which
is relevant to the study.
B. Basic Questions Section
- serves two purposes: the first purpose is to
establish that the person you are asking is the
right person for the study and the second
purpose is to establish with the interviewees.
C. Main Questions Section
- contains questions that are directly related
to your research.
- it is ideal to have multiple questions for
each specific research question.
- the greater the number of questions, the
greater the possibility of more conclusive
results.
D. Open-Ended Questions Section
- asks for a brief explanation or response to
an open-ended question.
Types of Questions in Questionnaire
1. Close-Ended Questions
- a type of question that includes a list of
response categories from which the respondent
will select his/her answer.
a. Likert Scale Multiple Choice Questions
b. Rating Scale Questions
c. Checklist Type Questions
d. Rank Order Questions
e. Two-Way Questions
2. Open-Ended Questions
- is answered using the opinion of the
participant towards a specific topic.
4. Observation
- allows the description of behavior in a
naturalistic or laboratory setting.
- usually, this instrument is used to cross-
validate the result of other instruments.
- this is most useful when the answers to
research questions require description of
behavior and setting and when the respondents
cannot literally answer interview questions and
questionnaire for some valid reasons such as
inability to speak and write.
Types of Observation
A. Participant and Non-Participant
Observation
Participant Observation- allows the researcher
to interact actively with the subjects while in
some cases; researchers immerse themselves in a
group or community for a long period of time.
Non-Participant Observation- allows the
researcher to observe the subjects without
interacting with them, therefore the subjects do
not know that they are being observed on which
this type of observation is usually employed by
psychologists when observing animals and
children.
B. Structured and Unstructured Observation
Structured Observation- occurs when the
researcher has a list of behaviors that he//she
wants to observe.
Unstructured Observation- occurs when the
researchers allows behaviors to emerge on which
these behaviors are then documented through an
in-depth narrative account.
C. Covert and Over Observation
Covert Observation- occurs when the subjects
are not aware that they are being observed.
Overt Observation- occurs when the subjects
are aware that they are being observed.
5. Experiment
- a procedure undertaken scientifically and
systematically to make a discovery and test
hypothesis.
Steps in Experimenting
Step #1: Make observations.
Step #2: Develop the hypothesis.
Step #3: Design the experiment.
Step #4: Conduct the experiment. Replicate the
experiment to ensure the reliability of the
results.
Step #5: Analyze the results.
Step #6: Decide whether to accept or reject the
hypothesis based on the results.
Intervention- is the application of a technique
to observe and examine the outcome to a
group/variable under study to see improvements.
Classifications of Data
1. Nominal Data
- data that comprise of categories that
cannot be ranked because each category is just
different (ex. Sex, Gender, Marital Status,
Ethnicity).
2. Ordinal Data
- operates off rankings on ratings, but
the distances between them do now have a
relative degree (ex. Class ranking, Pain Scales,
Top Selling Books).
3. Interval Data
- the difference between two values is
meaningful (ex. Temperatures, Scores, IQ).
4. Ratio Data
- has the property of equal intervals, but
also has a true 0 point (ex. Height, Weight,
Money Earned in a Time Period, Age).
Sources of Data
1. Primary Source
- is first-handed information obtained from the
ground.
2. Secondary Source
- is second-handed information obtained
from reading books, watching news, videos, the
internet and other already documented material.
------------Data and Results-----------
- after data collection, is the organization
and analysis of data and then the presentation of
the results of the analysis in some form that will
allow to emphasize the important information.
Summary of Findings
- it provides a discussion for each of the
findings and states how the findings are
important or relevant based on the aim and
scope of your study.
Ways in Presenting Data
Textual Presentation
- incorporates important figures in a
paragraph of text. It allows us to direct the
readers’ interest to vital information.
Visual/Graphic Forms
- allows the writer to condense and present
his information in an aesthetically pleasing
manner.
Presenting Findings Visually
Titles- any visual aid you will use should feature
a suitable title and should be numbered.
Labels- all illustrations which describe
something should contain labels – words and
phrases that name parts or sections of the things
being described.
Keys- the unusual area of an illustration which
lists and describes the meaning of certain
shades, colors or line styles.
Positioning- illustrations should be placed after
the point where they have been discussed and in
case the explanation or discussion and the
graphics cannot be placed in one page you
should place the illustration at the top of the next
page.
Types of Visual/Graphic Forms
1. Tables
- displays numbers in columns, it also
condenses and classifies information to make
comparisons between and among data and helps
the readers grasp relationships that might be
visible in prose.
Guidelines in Terms of Styling and
Formatting Tables
 Simplify the table data by just presenting
those that will illustrate your point without
distorting the data so you will not
overwhelm the readers with numerous
columns and rows.
 Do not write the word or abbreviation for
the unit of measurement in every cell of the
columns; rather write the abbreviation in
parentheses in the column or row heading
instead.
2. Charts
- a graphical representation of data using
symbols that are usually boxes, lines and arrows
to show ranks, levels, procedures and
classifications.
A. Organizational Chart
- presents rankings,
classifications and levels of ideas.
B. Flow Chart
- illustrates a process or
direction of steps.
3. Graphs
- a diagram which shows the relationship
between variable quantities.
A. Circle Graph/Pie Graph
- shows the relationship of the
parts to the whole in percentages or
proportions.
B. Line Graph
- shows trends and changes in
data where the bottom grid scale
represents time.
- it can also show comparison if
there is more than one line in the graph.
 C. Bar Graph b. Scope and Limitation of the
Study
- uses vertical and horizontal
bars that compare amounts and c. Future Problem/s or
quantities. Question/s which may arise in the study
D. Pictograph Bibliography
- is like a horizontal bar chart - lists all the references used in the
but instead of using bars, we use study.
symbols or pictures to represent the
Appendix/Appendices
magnitude.
- includes relevant information like
- the purpose of it is to get the
survey sheets, interview questions or
attention of the reader.
questionnaires used in the course of the study.
- the pictograph provides an
overall picture of the data without
presenting the exact figures and the
choice for the symbol or picture should
be appropriate for the type of data
E. Statistical Graph
- shows statistical data in
geographical areas.
Processing- is a series of actions or steps
performed on data to verify and organize them
for subsequent uses.

------------------Others-------------------
Summary
- gives relevant information on how the
study came to be.
Conclusion
- should be concise and engaging.
- should clearly state the answer to the
research questions and show the new knowledge
contributed discovered through the research
done.
Recommendation
- gives recommendation for future
studies based on the ff. Attributes of the
presented study:
a. Number of Samples