Sampling – It refers to the process of choosing a
sample for research.
Representativeness – It is the qualities of the
sample that are the same as the population
which is considered as their qualifications to
represent the total population.
Sample – These are the individuals that were
chosen to represent the total population.
Population – They are the individuals that form
the total number of people in a specific group.
Target Population – They are the type of
population that is targeted by the researchers.
Accessible Population – The people from the
target population that are easier to connect with.
Sample – They are the individuals that were
chosen to represent the total population. They
were gathered from the accessible population.
Law of Large Numbers – The larger the number
of participants the more it represents the
population.
Sample Questions:
1. Dr. Near conducts an experiment on memory
for individuals who are above the age of 65.
Although there are millions of people above the
age of 65, she selects a group of 25 to participate
in the experiment. What name is given to the
group of 25?
a. A sample
b. An accessible sample
c. A population
d. A subgroup
2. What name is given to the group of individuals
from which researchers actually select
participants for research studies?
a. The accessible population
b. The target population
c. The representative population
d. The real population
3. For situations in which the researcher cannot
know the complete list of potential participants,
what kind of sampling is necessary?
a. Target sampling
b. Nontarget sampling
c. Probability sampling
d. Nonprobability sampling
Simple Random Sampling – It is the type of
sampling method in which each individual
receives an equal chance of getting selected. It is
good because it avoids biases, however, it does
not make sure that the sample is completely
representative of the total population since it
could be possible for the total population to have
different characteristics such as age, sex, gender,
etc. that this sampling technique could not
consider.
There are two types of Simple Random Sampling.
These are:
Sampling with replacement – In this simple
random technique, the probability is
independent since no matter how many times
the selection happens, the possibility of an
individual to be chose still remains the same.
Sampling without replacement – On the other
hand, this type of simple random technique has
a probability that is dependent on the frequency
of the selection, the more it happens the higher
the chance of an individual to be selected.
about this is that it makes it easy for the
researchers to gather large number of samples,
but the selection is not completely random or
independent.

Combined-Strategy Sampling – This method

Systematic Sampling – This random sampling
method is quite the same as the simple random
sampling method. However, this one administers
intervals that are computed by dividing the total
population with the desired number of samples.
The only issue with this method is that the
participants are not fully randomly selected since
there is an intervention of interval which
determines the flow of the selection.
combines any of the random sampling methods
mentioned above.
Sample Questions:
1. If each person in a large group has an equal
chance of being included in an experiment, then
what kind of sampling is being used?

a. Systematic sampling

Stratified Random Sampling – This type of b. Random sampling

sampling uses subgroups or strata in order to
make sure that each element of the total
population would be considered for the
selection. The good thing about this is that it
ensures that all the elements in the population
were considered for the selection. However, the
total number of the sample is usually not fully
representative of the population due to the
issues with the percentage.
c. Convenience sampling
d. Cluster sampling
2. A teacher obtains a sample of children from a
fifth-grade classroom by randomly selecting the
third, fifth, and eighth rows and taking all the
students in those rows. What kind of sampling is
being used?

a. Simple random sampling

Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling –
This type of sampling is somewhat similar to the b. Systematic sampling
first one. However, it is stricter with regards to
c. Cluster sampling
the percentage of the individuals per element
that should be considered or included in the d. Stratified sampling
sample. The previous issues with its predecessor
were finally addressed, however, some strata
may have limited representation in the sample.

Cluster Sampling – It is the type of sampling

which considers choosing a whole subgroup to
represent the population rather than selecting
some from each of them. The only good thing
3. A researcher would like to describe and
compare the attitudes of four different ethnic
groups of students at a local state college. What
kind of sampling would be best to obtain
participants for the study?
a. Simple random sampling
b. Stratified random sampling
c. Proportionate stratified random sampling
d. Systematic sampling
Convenience Sampling – Most commonly used
in behavioral science research and for pilot
testing of tests. This method takes advantage of
the idea of the set of population being
convenient for the researchers. It is easy but the
sample will be full of bias.
Quota Sampling – Also known as Stratified
Quota Sampling. This method is somewhat
similar to proportionate stratified sampling;
however, it does not apply random selection of
participants. It allows the researchers to control
the composition of the sample, however, there
would bias with it.
Sample Questions:
1. A researcher recruits a sample of 25 preschool
children for a research study by posting an
announcement in a local daycare center
describing the study and offering a $10 payment
for participation. What kind of sampling is the
researcher using?
a. Cluster sampling
b. Quota sampling
c. Simple random sampling
d. Convenience sampling
2. Which of the following sampling techniques is
most likely to result in a biased sample?
a. Simple random sampling
b. Convenience sampling
c. Proportionate stratified random sampling
d. Systematic sampling
3. A researcher would like to select a sample of
50 people so that five different age groups are
equally represented in the sample. Assuming
that the researcher does not know the entire list
of people in the population, which sampling
technique should be used?
a. Quota sampling
b. Stratified random sampling
c. Proportionate stratified random sampling
d. Cluster sampling
Research Strategy – It refers to the approach Even though the correlational research strategy
used by the researchers to gather information can determine relationships, it is not capable of
regarding a specific question. determining causation.

Descriptive Research Strategy – It aims to

measure the state of individual variables from
Experimental Research Strategy – This strategy
individuals. It does not measure or study
aims to determine the effects of an independent
relationships nor effects, but rather, the state of
variable on a dependent variable. It produces
individual variables.
unambiguous results.
Correlational Research Strategy – This type of
Quasi-Experimental Research Strategy – It Is
research strategy aims to analyze and
somewhat similar to experimental research
understand the relationship between two
strategy, however, the results gathered using this
variables. There are a total of three types of
method does not fully explain the results since it
correlation between two variables. These are:
is derived from a research experiment that is not
Positive Correlation – If the two variables as strict as a full-blown experiment.
increase and decrease together at the same
Non-Experimental Research Strategy – It is
time.
experimental in nature but does not attempt to
Negative Correlation – If the two variables explain the effects of independent variable on
increase and decrease in different manners. the dependent variable. Meaning to say it only
determines relationship.
Zero Correlation – It the two variables does not
have any relationship at all.

Even though there are only three types of Although there is a similarity between non-
correlation, there are what is called linear and experimental and correlational strategy, since
curvilinear correlation. both of them tries to determine relation, they
still differ from each other. Correlational Strategy
Linear Correlation – It could be positive and
measures two variables from individuals in a
negative. It refers to the correlation that is
single group while Non-Experimental Strategy
consistent in development, positive linear states
focuses on measuring a single variable from
consistent increase in both variables while
individuals from two groups.
negative linear shows consistent decrease of the
two.

Curvilinear Correlation - On the other hand,

curvilinear states correlation that is not
consistent. Positive curvilinear states
inconsistent increase in both variables (it may be
the other is consistent while the other one is
not).

Scatterplot – It is used to represent the state of

each individual in a graphical representation.
Research Strategies – These are the approaches
that can be used to gather information using a
study.
Research Design – These are the methods to
implement the study. A research design specifies
whether the study will involve groups or
individual participants, will make comparisons
within a group or between groups, and how
many variables will be included in the study. In
order to be able to have the proper design, a
researcher needs to consider these three factors:
1.Group versus individual
2.Same individuals versus different individuals
3.The number of variables included
Research Procedure – An exact step-by-step
description of a specific research study.
Sample Questions:
1. Which of the following questions can be
addressed with the descriptive strategy?
a. What is the average number of text messages
that a typical adolescent sends in a month?
b. Is there a relationship between the number of
text messages that adolescents send each month
and the number of pages of leisure reading done
by adolescents?
c. Does decreasing the number of text messages
sent by adolescents cause an increase in number
of pages read for leisure?
d. None of these questions can be addressed
with this strategy
2. A research study attempts to describe the
relationship between self-esteem and birth
order position by measuring self-esteem for each
individual in a group of first-born boys, and then
comparing the results with self-esteem scores for
a group of later-born boys. Which research
strategy is being used?
a. Nonexperimental
b. Correlational
c. Experimental
d. Quasi-experimental
3. Which of the following is a general plan for
implementing a research strategy?
a. A research procedure
b. A research design
c. A research study
d. A research protocol
External Validity – The quality of the research of
being able to be generalized. It means that if the
same research is conducted under different
settings the results would still be identical.
Threat to External Validity – It refers to any
characteristic of a study that limits the ability of
it to generalize the results gathered from the
study.
Internal Validity – It is concerned with the single
variable that could explain the changes in
another variable studied in the same research. It
means that if a study has a high internal validity,
changes from the variables being studied is
accurately expressed.
Threat to Internal Validity – It refers to the
characteristics of research that threatens the
internal validity of a study.
Sample Questions:
1. Results from a research study suggest that a
stop-smoking program is very successful.
However, the participants who volunteered for
the study were all highly motivated to quit
smoking and the researcher is concerned that
the same results may not be obtained for
smokers who are not as motivated. What kind of
validity is being questioned?
a. Internal validity
b. External validity
c. Experimental validity
d. Validity of measurement
2. The degree to which your research results
generalize beyond the specific characteristics of
your study refers to
a. internal validity
b. external validity
c. general validity
d. reliability
3. A researcher measures mood for a group of
participants who have listened to happy music
for 20 minutes and for a second group who have
listened to sad music for 20 minutes. If different
mood scores are obtained for the two groups,
the researcher would like to conclude that music
influences mood. However, the happy music
group was tested in a room painted yellow and
the sad music group was in a room painted dark
brown and the researcher is concerned that the
room color and not the music may influence
mood scores. What kind of validity is being
questioned?
a. Internal validity
b. External validity
c. Experimental validity
d. Validity of measurement
Threats to External Validity
1.Selection Bias – It refers to the process of
selecting participants with the presence of bias
judgement which results to the formation of
Biased Samples.
2.Volunteer Bias – Refers to the bias results that
could become the result of having volunteers as
the participants of the study.
3.Participant Characteristics – It is a threat to
external validity since results from a sample with
different characteristics may not be applicable to
represent other individuals who have different
characteristics from them.
4.Cross-Species Generalizations – Results
gathered from other species is not enough to
represent the other.
5.Novelty Effect – The individuals may respond
differently than they would in normal, real-world
situations.
6.Multiple Treatment Interference -The
previous treatment the participant has
underwent may affect the results gathered from
the current treatment.
7.Experimenter Characteristics – How the
experimenter is might affect the results and
threaten the external validity of the study.
8.Sensitization – Phenomena in which the
individual is being aware of the test due to the
initial testing using the same test which affects
the results during the post-test.
9.Generatility across response measures – The
response of the other group might not be the
same as another group.
10.Time of measurement -The time the
measurement was done can actually contribute
the study which could threaten the external
validity of the study.
Sample Questions:
1. A journal article reports that a new teaching
strategy is very effective for first-grade students.
A teacher wonders if the same strategy would be
effective for a class of third-grade students. What
is the teacher questioning?
a. The external validity of the report
b. The internal validity of the report
c. The reliability of the report
d. The accuracy of the report
2. How can sensitization threaten external
validity of a study?
a. The results may be limited to the novel
situation of the research study.
b. The results may be limited to individuals who
have experienced a pretest.
c. The results may be limited to individuals who
have experienced a series of different treatment
conditions.
d. The results may be limited to participants
taking on different subject roles
Extraneous Variables – Other variables that is
present in the study along with the specific
variables being measured. There is always
extraneous variables In a study.
Confounding Variables -Extraneous variables
that actually affects the variables being
measured. It is a threat to internal validity since
it could be the reason why the dependent
variable changed and not the independent
variable being implemented.
Individual Differences – The different
characteristics of the participant can also
become confounding variables.
Environmental Variables – Differences in the
environment in which the participant was tested
could also pose a threat with the internal validity.
Time-related Variables – The time in which the
participant to the testing is somewhat can also
threaten the internal validity of the study.
Sample Questions:
1. Which of the following describes a variable
that exists in a study but is not being directly
examined?
a. Independent
b. Dependent
c. Extraneous
d. External
2. A study examining the relationship between
humor and memory compares memory
performance scores for one group presented
with humorous sentences and a second group
presented with non-humorous sentences. The
participants in one group are primarily 8-year-old
students and those in the second group are
primarily 10-year-old students. In this study, age
is potentially a(n) ________ variable.
a. independent
b. dependent
c. extraneous
d. confounding
3. What aspect of a study is threatened if the
participants are tested in one treatment
condition at one time and then tested in a
second treatment condition at a different time?
a. Internal validity
b. External validity
c. Reliability
d. Accuracy
Balancing internal and external validity –
Oftentimes, research studies are only strong in
one type of validity which is why the purpose of
the research is the main determining factor
which among the two would be the focus of the
researcher.
Artifacts – External factors that may influence or
distort measurements because it can threaten
both validity and reliability of a study. The
experimenter bias and participant reactivity are
just two of the many potential artifacts.
Experimenter Bias – Occurs when the personal
belief and expectations of the experimenter
influence the result of the participants. In order
to counter its effects, it is recommended to use
either of the following:
Single blind – The experimenter does not know
the participants.
Double blind – The experimenter does not know
the participants and has no idea about the
possible outcome of the experiment.
Sample Questions:
1. Cues given to participants about how they are
expected to behave define which of the following
terms?
a. Reactivity
b. Demand characteristics
c. Experimenter bias
d. Volunteer bias
2. Experimental research studies tend to have
very _______ internal validity but often have
relatively _______ external validity.
a. high; low
b. low; high
c. high; high
d. low; low
Third-Variable Problem – The possibility that the
change in dependent variable is not caused by
the independent variable but by a third variable.
Directionality Problem – Even though the study
has been able to determine the relationship
between two variables it is still possible to have
issues with directionality in which the
researchers would not be able to completely
determine whether the independent variable
affected the dependent variable or vice versa.
Sample Questions:
1. How do studies using the experimental
research strategy differ from other types of
research?
a. Only experiments can demonstrate a cause-
and-effect relationship between variables.
b. Only experiments involve comparing two or
more groups of scores.
c. Only experiments can demonstrate that
relationships exist between variables and
provide a description of the relationship.
d. Only experiments can demonstrate a
bidirectional relationship between variables.
2. Dr. Jones is interested in studying how indoor
lighting can influence people’s moods during the
winter. A sample of 100 households is selected.
Fifty of the homes are randomly assigned to the
bright-light condition where Dr. Jones replaces all
the lights with 100-watt bulbs. In the other 50
houses, all the lights are changed to 60-watt
bulbs. After two months, Dr. Jones measures the
level of depression for the people living in the
houses. In this example, how many dependent
variables are there?
a. 100
b. 50
c. 2
d. 1
3. Research indicates the people who suffer from
depression also tend to experience insomnia.
However, it is unclear whether depression causes
insomnia or lack of sleep causes depression.
What problem is demonstrated by this example?
a. the directionality problem
b. the third-variable problem
c. the extraneous variable problem
d. the manipulation-check problem
Manipulation – It consists of identifying the
specific values of the independent variable to be
examined and then creating a set of treatment
conditions corresponding to the set of identified
value.
Manipulation and the Directionality Problem -It
states that through manipulation we can possibly
solve the issues with directionality problem since
if by manipulating the other variable the other
one would be affected, it means that the
manipulated variable is the reason for the
changes in the other.
Manipulation and Third-Variable Problem – It is
also stated that by manipulating the
independent variable we would be able to
minimize the influence of the third variable in a
study.
Control – One of the distinguishing
characteristics of experimental research is to
control the other variables to maximize the
quality of a study.
Sample Questions:
1. In an experiment, what is the purpose for
manipulating the independent variable?
a. It helps establish the direction of the
relationship by showing that the dependent
variable changes when you manipulate the
independent variable.
b. It helps eliminate the third-variable problem
because you decide when to manipulate rather
than waiting for the variable to change.
c. It helps establish the direction of the
relationship and it helps eliminate the third-
variable problem.
d. Manipulation does not establish the direction
of the relationship or eliminate the third-variable
problem.
2. In order to establish an unambiguous
relationship between two variables, it is
necessary to eliminate the possible influence of
which of the following variables?
a. Extraneous variables
b. Confounding variables
c. independent variables
d. Dependent variables
3. Which of the following characteristics are
necessary for an extraneous variable to become
a confounding variable?
a. It must change systematically from one
participant to the next.
b. It must change systematically when the
independent variable is changed.
c. It must have no systematic relationship with
the dependent variable.
d. It must have no systematic relationship to
either the independent or the dependent
variables.
Randomization – It refers to the use of a random
process to help avoid a systematic relationship
between two variables.
Random Assignment – It is the use of a random
process to assign participants to treatment
conditions.
Sample Questions: 7.3
1. In an experiment comparing two treatments,
the researcher assigns participants to treatment
conditions so that each condition has fifteen 7-
year-old children and ten 8-year-old children. For
this study, what method is being used to control
participant age?
a. Randomization
b. Matching
c. Holding constant
d. Limiting the range
2. Holding a variable constant is a technique for
removing one threat to ________, but it can limit
the ________ of an experiment.
a. internal validity, external validity
b. external validity, internal validity
c. internal validity, reliability
d. external validity, reliability
3. Which of the following is the primary goal for
randomly assigning participants to treatment
conditions in an experiment?
a. Increase the ability to generalize the results.
b. Avoid selection bias.
c. Ensure that the individuals in the sample are
representative of the individuals in the
population.
d. Minimize the likelihood that a participant
variable (such as age or gender) becomes a
confounding variable.
Sample Questions: 7.4
1. What is the purpose for using a control
condition in an experiment?
a. It provides a baseline that can be used to
evaluate the size of the treatment effect.
b. It minimizes the threat of a confounding
variable.
c. It is necessary to ensure the internal validity of
the study.
d. It is necessary to ensure the external validity
of the study.
2. An experiment includes a treatment condition,
a no-treatment control, and a placebo control.
Which two conditions should be compared to
determine the size of the effect that is actually
caused by the treatment?
a. Placebo versus treatment
b. Placebo versus no treatment
c. Treatment versus no treatment
d. You only need to look at the scores in the
placebo control condition.
3. A researcher exposes people to stressful
situations (such as public speaking) to examine
the effect of stress on depressed mood. Why
would the researcher also include a measure of
stress?
a. It is a measure of the dependent variable.
b. It is a measure of extraneous variables.
c. It is a control for confounding variables.
d. It is a manipulation check.
Sample Questions: 7.5

1. A researcher moves an experiment out of the

laboratory and into the real world. This type of
research is called?

a. a simulation study.

b. a field study.

c. a transported study.

d. a quasi-experimental study.

2. Researchers often use simulation experiments

in an attempt to obtain the _________ of an
experiment and still keep much of the
_________ of research conducted in the real
world.

a. external validity, internal validity

b. internal validity, external validity

c. experimental realism, mundane realism

d. mundane realism, experimental realism

3. Although field studies tend to have higher

external validity than traditional laboratory
studies, what risk do they tend to have?

a. Lower internal validity

b. Lower reliability

c. An increased risk of confounding from history

effects

d. An increased risk that the manipulation of the

independent variable will not be effective.