FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (Prelims) However, despite being able to convince a large
number of people, the method of tenacity is still
Methods of Knowing and Acquiring Knowledge
1. Scientific Method
2. Non-Scientific Method
A researcher is allowed to gather data using various
methods such as conducting experiments,
performing interviews, and forming another research
paper using the other previous studies as the source
of information.
Methods of Acquiring Knowledge
These are ways in which a person can know things or
discover answers to questions. There are a total of
five nonscientific approaches, these includes the
following:
1. Method of Tenacity
2. Method of Intuition
3. Method of Authority
4. Rational Method
5. Method of Empiricism
Method of Tenacity
In Method of Tenacity, information is accepted as
true because it has always been believed or because
superstition supports it. It is when specific
information is treated as a fact because it has already
been formed as a fixed belief in the minds of many.
For example, believing that black cats bring bad luck
regardless of lack of valid information to support the
claim but since it has already been a general notion
to believe that dark-furred feline do bring
misfortunes, the majority of the people would be
convinced by it.
criticized due to its unreliability. The information
gathered using this method might be supported by
unreliable sources which makes it inaccurate.
Furthermore, since it has already been accepted by
the majority, despite of its unreliability, the
information that are gathered using the method of
tenacity becomes difficult to deal with since the
individuals who believe it will most likely be resistant
to correction even when handed with valid
arguments and cited with reliable sources.
Method of Intuition
In this non-scientific method of acquiring knowledge,
the information is accepted based on hunch or gut
feeling. For example, you are claiming that your
classmate who you had an argument with has been
continuously spreading negative information about
you due to your intuition telling you that since you
argued with that person recently, he/she would try
to make you look like the bad person by disclosing
awful data that has something to do with you even
though you do not have evidences to support your
claims.
Furthermore, the method of intuition is also claimed
to be the “quickest way” of gathering information
since it does not require any supporting information
at all. Also, according to studies, whenever the
intuition is proven to be right, regardless of its
previous issues with legitimacy since it lacks valid
evidence to support the claim, its reliability becomes
higher since it has already been proven before that
this gut feeling was true resulting to a larger number
of people relying on using this non-scientific method
despite its issues with validity.
Additionally, one of the general pit falls of this
method is that it uses subtle cues as its main source
of information which results in a lower level of
validity. Second is that it has no mechanism for
separating accurate from inaccurate information.
 Method of Authority Furthermore, in relation with the previous concerns
regarding this non-scientific method, there is a high
This non-scientific method of acquiring knowledge is
tendency for individuals to accept the information
used when an individual relies on taking information
gathered from an expert without any given sources
from someone who is deemed to be an expert when
to support their claims merely because of the fact
it comes to that field. For example, children most
that it came from a person with expertise in that
often gather information through the method of
field who claimed it.
authority, they tend to accept data from someone
they see as an expert with the subject matter Method of Faith
without much question with the validity of the
Under the method of authority, there is what we call
information since the one shared it to them is a
the method of faith in which individuals do not ask
figure with authority.
for the reliability of the information merely because
However, reliance with this method also comes with of the fact that the data came from an expert.
risks since it is possible for the expert to have biases
which would make the reliability of his/her claim to
be questionable. For example, you asked your In conclusion, in order for us to avoid the misfortune
teacher regarding the Marcos Regime, however, of acquiring wrong information from these experts,
since your instructor is a Marcos Apologist, he/she there should always be an act of source validation
would avoid information that might give you before we proceed to assimilating the data, they had
negative feedback regarding the subject matter, been shared with us. We must evaluate the source
instead, he/she would put more emphasis on the and evaluate the information.
bright side of the story in an attempt to make you
agree or believe with his/her own bias judgement.

Additionally, one of the pit falls of this method is that

there is a high tendency for us to assume that the
information we gather from these experts can be
assumed as true knowledge due to our reliance on
their respective titles. For example, during crucial
situations, it is important for us to ask for second
opinion from another doctor before proceeding to
an operation since it might be possible that even
though the first doctor has the expertise with
medicine, he/she might miss some information
regarding your case which could possibly end up
being a misfortune in your side had you agreed on an
operation without asking a second opinion.
 Rational Method
This non-scientific method mainly relies on the use
of logical reasoning. The rational method consists of
an argument and premise statements. For us to be
able to gather an information using this method, we
must first form premise statements which includes
the initial idea regarding the subject matter which
would then is going to be validated by the argument
that we would formulate based on the premise
statements.
Example:
1. Premise statements:
1st : Poor parental guidance leads to poor
psychological development in children such
as low level of empathy, weak manners, and
bad behavior.
2nd : Jay is a college student who had been
expelled from school due to his poor
manners and bad behavior.
2. Argument:
1st : Jay had been neglected as a child which
caused his manners and behavior to be
underdeveloped. (Logical conclusion).
However regardless of its reliability, the rational
method also has issues, first is that the two premises
statements need to be proven, second is that the
first premise statement is universal, however, it does
not mean that it could also be generalized in every
situation. For example, not everyone who has poor
manners and bad behavior during their young adult
period of development are subjects as a victim of
parental neglect, there is a possibility that Jay did not
become as what he is at the moment because of his
parents but because during his adolescence he
mostly spent his time doing harmful activities with
his peers.
Another pit fall of rational method is that
people are not particularly good at logical
reasoning.
Empirical Method
This non-scientific method uses observation
or direct sensory experience to obtain
knowledge. However, regardless of the
concept of empirical method being based
on sensory experience, there is also a risk in
relying on this method. First is that relying
on direct sensory experience does not
always guarantee valid information since
our senses are limited, there are instances
wherein we would not be able to recognize
data that are necessary for our study due to
our lack of capability to fully analyze and
understand the sensory information that we
have gathered. For example, David Hume is
an empiricist, he mainly relies on his senses
in terms of gathering information. However,
there are instances wherein not because
David had analyzed these particular
experiences this way it would always mean
that the information he gathered can be
generalized since it is possible that Hume
was not able to fully understand the
situation, he encountered which made his
conclusions somewhat unreliable. (May,
can)
 reliant on your
intuition. Additionally, it is
known as the
quickest way of
gathering data
SUMMARY OF ALL THE FIVE NON- since it only
SCIENTIFIC METHODS relies on mere
intuition.

This method has Despite its

a lot of flaws, reliability since
one of which the one asked
involves having for information
information that are deemed to
is unreliable be experts, it is
since it is still somehow
derived from flawed when it
untrusted comes to
Relying on sources. Second reliability since
Fixed beliefs is that this due to the faith
Method of due to method is hard we have with
Tenacity superstition. to counter since those experts,
the individuals we tend to
Example: Belief who use this disregard the
which involves kind of method idea that they
black cats have already might be wrong
bringing bad from a fixed which leads to
luck. belief in their the refusal to
minds which are data and source
proven to be validation.
hard to deal with This method
even with valid mainly relies on Additionally, the
sources. an authority data gathered
figure to gather from these
Method of
data. experts can be
Authority unreliable since
Aside from its
unreliability due Example: they can have
to the nature of Relying on the biases which
its source of information may affect their
information, it is given by your take with
This method considered as a college regards to the
involves gaining flawed method instructor. subject you are
knowledge since the more consulting them
using intuition you are able to about.
or gut feeling. prove to yourself
that your Method of faith
Method of Example: intuition is is the term used
Having an correct, the to refer to the
Intuition
intuition which more you phenomena
tells you that become reliant wherein an
your partner is with it making individual fully
cheating on you unable to trusts the expert
you. It turns realize the due to its title
out that you importance of without even
are correct source and validating the
which made information information
you more validation. these experts
 had been given. gathered using
empirical
The technique method is true
TO avoid being a since you
victim of this experienced it
method is to first handedly, it
always validate is still possible
your source and that due to your
the information. senses lacking
on something, it
would affect the
Although this information you
method uses acquired
logical reasoning through
and critical experimentation.
thinking, it is still
far from being
This method perfect. One of
mainly uses its flaws is that
rationality or the conclusion it
logical might produce
Rational reasoning for may become
Method data gathering. correct, but it
In this method cannot be
there are two generalized.
types of
statement Second is that
present, the initial
premise premise
statements and statements are
logical most often
conclusion. universal,
however, it
cannot be
general.

This method Despite its

relies on senses reliability due to
Empirical such as sense the information
of sight, taste, gathered using
Method
touch, hearing, this method
and smell. being proven
and tested, it is
still considered
flawed in a
manner that it
cannot always
guarantee
generally
accepted
information
since our senses
can be limited at
times. There
would be
instances
wherein even if
what you
 answer or
explanation. Example: There is a
significant difference
between the results of
pre-test of control
group and
experimental.

Step 3 Generate a Hypothesis developing.

testable Wild guesses need to
prediction. be testable.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Thinking about the

It is a more formal and reliable method of
research strategy,
acquiring knowledge compared to non- Making research design,
scientific methods. It uses sets of scientific systematic research population,
Step 4
questions and materials to gather and planned criteria, how would the
information. Additionally, scientific methods observations. elimination of variables
occur.
are concerned with efficient ways of
generating knowledge.
Using the data, you
gather to decide
whether you need to
Steps in Scientific Method accept or decline the
initial hypothesis.

Process of Scientific
inquiry: It is a scientific
It is important to Use the method that can be
observe and identify observation viewed as a circular
which topic you want Step 5 to support, process or a series of
to study about. refute, or steps. Initial
Additionally, always refine the observations lead to a
make sure that the original hypothesis and a
topic you will choose is hypothesis. prediction, which leads
something you are to more observations
interested in, and it and then to a new
Step 1 Observe should be relevant. hypothesis.

Furthermore, always In simpler terms, the

make sure that the process of scientific
variables you are going inquiry refers to the
to use can be cycle of process a
connected to each scientific method
other. sometimes ends up
due to the hypothesis
being declined and
You would have to being refined, the
make a tentative process becomes
answer or explanation repetitive.
that would then be
either accepted or
Form a rejected after the
Step 2 tentative research is finished.
 manipulated and can
Independent affect the dependent
variables.

THE PROCESS OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY

Hypothesis

Initial Observation
These are the statements that describe or
explain a relationship between variables.
There are two types of hypotheses.
Hypothesis

This type of
Accept Decline hypothesis states that
there are no
Null Hypothesis significant differences
between the
experimental and
control group.

Proceed to Start from

Conclusion the initial This type of

hypothesis indicates
observation Alternative that there are
Hypothesis significant differences
between the
experimental and
control group.
Variables

These are characteristics that can either be changed

or be manipulated. There are two types of variables.

Variables that can be

Dependent affected by the
independent
variables.

Variables that can be

 Non or Zero Nothing happens
Correlational at all.

Types of Research Design

Two types of reasoning

It uses both
dependent and
True Experimental independent General statement
variables with the is used to form a
goal of measuring specific prediction.
effects.
Deductive Ex: Most men are
cheaters;
It measures therefore, he is a
relationships and cheater since I saw
only has variables. him talking to his
Correlational There are three classmate who is a
types of girl.
correlational
research.
Specific statement
is used to form a
general prediction.
Types of Correlational
Ex: She cheated on
me with her boy
best friend;
The changes that Inductive therefore, I avoid
Positive happen to the girls who have boy
Correlational other variable also best friend since I
happen to the always assume that
other. every boy best
friend aims to steal
their girl best
The changes that friend from their
happen to the boyfriends.
Negative other variable do
Correlational not happen to the
other. However,
there are still
changes that
occur.
 Qualitative Quantitative

It is based on making Type of research

observations that are which measures
summarized and data using
interpreted in a numbers and
narrative report. statistical method.

OTHER ELEMENTS OF THE SCIENTIFIC

METHODS

THE STEPS OF RESEARCH PROCESS

Scientific Method

Step 1: Find a The topic needs to

Research Idea be relevant, as well
as useful.

Empirical Public Objective

We need to form a
tentative answer or
prediction. These
Step 2: Form a statements are soon
Science relies on observation
hypothesis. to be either
Empirical using senses, it only accepts
accepted, rejected,
facts and truths.
or refined.

Science needs to be accessible

You have to set
to the public for the
Step 3: Determine criteria, use
Public information to be shared to
how you define and measuring tools,
others as well as for it to act
measure your and statistical
as reference for other studies
variable. treatment, as well
in the future.
as how to gather
participants.
Science has a specific goal
Objective which is to aim for answers
Step 4: Identify the Plan for who the
regarding a particular topic.
participants or respondents should
Subjects for the study. be.

RESEARCH PROCESSES Step 5: Research Pick a proper

Strategy research strategy.
Two types of research
 1. You need to identify a general topic
Step 6: Research Pick research area that is interesting to you.
Design design. 2. You must explore previous research in
that topic area to find a specific
research idea or question. You can look
Step 7: Conduct study The actual for unanswered questions regarding
application of your the topic area you chose and use it as a
study.
specific research topic for your study.
Analyze the data
Step 8: Evaluate the gathered from the
data study and describe
them in written
format.

It is important to
report it to your Common source of research topic
colleagues as well as
Step 9: Report the the participants for
results. them to know their
current state 1. Personal interests and curiosities.
regarding the study
Feel free to look for research topics based on your
you just conducted.
own interests and concerns. Here are a few
possibilities:

1ST Population or group of individuals.

Revision of research
design so that the Ex: students, workers, children, etc.
other researcher in
Step 10: Refine or the future who would
reformulate your conduct the same
2nd Behavior
research design. research as yours
would have a better Ex: drug addiction, anger management, pathological
design since you lying, etc.
would share them the
flaws of your current
study.
3rd General topic

Ex: autism, depression, stress, sleep deprivation, etc.

RESEARCH IDEAS AND HYPOTHESIS

Identifying a topic area 2. Casual Observation

The first step in the research process is to
find an idea for a research study. It has two
distinct parts. These are the following:
Watching the behavior of people or animals you
encounter daily can be an excellent source of
topics. Any behavior that attracts your attention
and arouses your curiosity can become a good
research topic.
 Reviewing the published research reports in the
area to gather background information on the topic
3. Reports of other’s observations
you have identified. Your goal is to find a specific
Research topics do not come exclusively from idea or question in order for you to have a brief
serious reports. Gossip columns, personal ads, understanding of what is currently happening in
comics, political cartoons, and advertising can that specific area.
stimulate research questions. It can be reports of
recent events such as new findings in research.
However, it is still flawed since information
gathered from these sources may most probably
end up being unreliable since the data, they share
with other people tend to be invalidated.

4. Practical Problems or Questions Tips for starting a review of the literature.

Occasionally topics for research will arise from
practical problems or questions you encounter in It means that once you
your daily life. It includes topics such as work have already picked a
performance, as well as academic competence. Do your topic, collecting or
homework. gathering supporting
information should be
done immediately.
5. Behavioral Theories

Watch the theories that offer explanations for

behavior or try to explain why different You have to be
environmental factors lead to different behaviors. Keep an open considerate when it
Testing theories can become a good topic. It is mind (be comes to other factors
critical, but such as the testability
possible for you to find different theories that
flexible) of your study, and the
explain the same behavior, if it happens then you
issues with finding
are having an opportunity to make it your research
participants.
topic.

Disregard irrelevant
Applied Research Basic Research Focus information and focus
on data and processes
It intends to answer It is intended to answer that are necessary.
practical questions or theoretical questions or
solve practical gather knowledge simply
problems. for the sake of new Take your time on
knowledge. answering questions
It plays an important Take one step at a time and doing the
role with solving necessary processes in
everyday problems your study to keep
errors minimal.

Searching the existing research literature in a topic

area
 Using Online Databases

Database contains about 1 million publications, or

records, that are all cross-referenced by subject
words. PsychInfo refers to a computerized database
for searching psychological literature that is
relevant in a research topic. Additionally, it provides
an abstract or summary of each publication. On the
other hand, PsychArticles is also a computerized
database which contains literature that covers the
full text of the original publication.

Abstract is a brief summary of the publication,

usually about 100 words.

Furthermore, Eric is also a database, however, it

focuses on articles regarding education. The next
Primary and Secondary Sources one is the Medline with Full text which provides
medical field related articles.

A primary source is a firsthand report of

observations or research results written by the Screening Articles during A Literature Search
individuals who conducted the research and made
the observation. It can include the researcher Conduct a brief
himself/herself. analyzation of the title of
the article you are
A secondary source is a description or summary of
planning on using and
the work of another person. A secondary source is
Use the title of the make it serve as a basis
written by someone who did not participate in the article as your first basis to determine whether
research or observations being discussed. for screening. the article you are
currently browsing would
be a valid source of
The Purpose of a Literature Search information to support
your study.
The purpose of a literature search is to find a set of
published reports that define the current state of
knowledge in an area and to identify an Second, you can also use
unanswered question, that is, a gap in that the summary or abstract
knowledge base that your study will attempt to fill. Use the abstract of the of the article as basis for
article as your second determining whether
In other terms, it aims to find a set of published screening device. that will be useful to your
reports and attempt to fill out the gaps in those study or not.
literature to improve the current state of that
specific study.
Look for a full-text
Every study uses previous research of other version of the articles, or
researchers in order for them to strengthen their a request an interlibrary
arguments. loan if full text is not
available.

If even after analyzing its

If it still looks relevant,
then read the article
carefully and/or make a
copy for your personal
use.
relevance, the article still
seems to be relevant to
your topic, you can finally
read or copy it for your
personal use.

Use references from the If the article seems to be

articles that you have
already found to expand
your literature search.
completely relevant with
your topic, you can use
the references the
author used as your
reference as well.

The Components of a Research Article-Critical

Reading
Ending a Literature Search

Throughout the process, keep in mind that the

It discusses previous
purpose of a literature search is to gain a general
research that forms
familiarity with the current research in your specific the foundation for the
area of interest and find a small set of research current research study
studies that will serve as the basis for your own Introduction and presents a clear
research idea. statement of the
problem being
investigated. Usually,
Finding an Idea for a Research Study from a the introduction
Published Research Article. already has citations.

Once you have located a set of recent and relevant

articles, the final part of the Step 1 of the research It present details
process is to use these research reports as the Method Section concerning the
foundation for your research idea or research participants and the
question. procedures used in the
study.

It presents the details

Step 1. Find suggestions for future research. of the statistical
Results Section analysis and usually is
Step 2. Combine or contrast existing results.
not important for
Step 3. The components of a research article, generating a new
critical reading. research idea.

Discussion Section It begins by

summarizing the
results of the study,
stating the
 conclusions, and
noting any potential Validity Example: Construct Validity, Content
applications. Validity, Criterion Validity

The researcher should

Reference Section list complete Consistency
references for all items
cited in the report. Reliability Example: Test-Retest, Interrater, Internal
Consistency

Construct

These are variables that are measurable but

intangible.

Using a Research Idea to Form a Hypothesis and

Create a Research Study
The next step in the research process is to
transform your research idea into a hypothesis.
Characteristics of a good hypothesis
1. Logical (It should have premise statement and
conclusion)
There are two types of methods in measuring. It
includes direct and indirect methods. The direct
method uses an approach which includes
measuring scales. For example, height, width,
distance. This method uses measuring scales,
and it can be used for determining
measurements of visible variables. On the other
hand, the indirect method does the opposite in
which it focuses on measuring variables that are
not directly visible by the naked eye. This type of
method uses measuring tools as well.

2. Testable (It should be measurable by a tool)

3. Refutable (It can be labeled as false which would Motivation + External Factors =?
result to the formulation of a better hypothesis)

In the example above, we can see that

4. Positive (It should be capable of making a motivation (construct), is being measured
positive statement regarding the existence of whether it would be affected by external factors
something) such as rewards and punishments and would the
effects become positive or negative. How would
it affect the performance of the individual?

DEFINING AND MEASURING VARIABLES

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
Accuracy
It is a procedure for measuring and defining
construct, it Is an indirect method of measuring
something that cannot be measured directly. It
specifies a measurement procedure for
measuring an external, observable behavior and
uses the resulting measurements as a definition
and a measurement of the hypothetical
construct. For example, you are trying to
measure the intelligence of the student, in order
to do that, you could need to use intelligence
test, comprehension test, logical test, problem-
solving.

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE

LIMITATIONS OF OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS MEASUREMENT

Although operational definitions are necessary There are two general criteria for evaluating the
to convert abstract variables into a concrete quality of any measurement procedure. These
entity that can be observed and studied, you are validity and reliability.
should keep in mind that an operational
definition is not the same as the construct itself.
(Knowledge and Performance = x)
Validity Reliability
There is no one-to-one relationship between the
variable that is being measured and the actual
It is concerned with how It is a measurement
measurements produced by the operational capable the procedure which is said to
definition. (Performance – Physical Illness) measurement is when it be reliable if repeated
comes to measuring the measurements of the
In layman’s term, operational definitions are true state of the same individual under the
helpful when it comes to measuring constructs. variable. same conditions produce
However, it is still limited since it does not identical (or nearly
exactly ascertain that the state of the construct It refers to the degree to identical) values.
at the moment is acceptable since external which the measurement Reliability is the stability
factors can affect the condition of the construct. tool is really capable of or the consistency of
measuring the variable it measurement.
is stated it can measure.
Formula for Reliability:
USING OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS
Measured score = true
score + error
One does not always have to come up with their
own operational definition of the construct, they Example: Measured self-
can use sone conventional measurement esteem score = True self-
procedure from previous studies. esteem score +
 experiences, environment
The formula of reliability
states that the measured
or final score should stay
stable or consistent
regardless of the
intervention of errors that
come from external
factors.
Furthermore,
inconsistency (lack of
reliability) of
measurement comes
from error. The higher the
error the more unreliable
the measurement.
These are some of the
reasons for error:
Observer error
Environmental Changes
Participant Changes
DIFFERENT TYPES OF VALIDITY
It is the simplest and least
scientific definition of
validity. It is based on
subjective judgement and
difficult to quantify.
Example: Assuming
regarding how valid an
instrument is based on
analyzing the questions. If
Face Validity the questions seem to be
focused on the variable
being measured, it will
most likely have a high
internal validity.
The issue with this
method is that
participants, upon seeing
the set of questions
included in the test, have
a high tendency to cheat.
It is demonstrated when
scores obtained from a
previous measuring tool
is still directly related to
the data gathered using
the newly formulated
measurement tool of the
same variable.
Concurrent Validity
(Criterion Validity) Example: The scores
gathered from the first
version of this self-
esteem test are still in the
same spectrum compared
to the newer version of
the same measurement
tool.
It is when the scores
gathered from a
measurement tool
accurately predict
behavior according to a
theory.
Predictive Validity Example: Low score on a
(Criterion Validity) self-esteem test before
entering a pre-school
accurately predicted that
Karen would act sensitive
with criticism and would
most of the time ostracize
herself from her
classmates.
It is demonstrated when
scores obtained from a
measure are directly
related to the variable
itself. It reflects how
measure relates to the
construct (height, and
 weight).
It is demonstrated by
In one sense, construct using two different
validity is achieved by methods to measure two
repeatedly demonstrating different constructs.
every other type of Divergent validity must be
validity. shown for each of the
Construct Validity two constructs and little
In other words, construct or no relationship exists.
validity is when the
psychological tool really Example: Measuring
measures the construct it Divergent Validity honesty through
is supposed to measure. administering both
It can be done through truthfulness and lie
administering other types detector test. Another
of validity. one is Measuring
extraversion using
Example: MMPI does introvert. Measuring
measure the personality adaptability using
of an individual, it means ignorance test and
that it has an accurate comprehension test.
construct validity.

It is demonstrated by a
strong relationship
between the scores
obtained from two
different methods of
measuring the same
construct.
Example: A student was
referred to a between them. The same
psychometrician due to
the observation of her
teacher with regards to
Convergent Validity her low self-esteem
which made the assessor
conduct a self-esteem
test on her which turned
out that she really has
issues with her self-
esteem.
The example above shows
that the initial rating of
the behavior of the
student relates to the test
results.
TYPES OF RELIABILITY
Obtaining scores from
two successive
measurements and
calculating a correlation
group. The same
measurement at two
Successive different times. It is
Measurements assessed using Test-retest
reliability.
Example: Administering
self-esteem scale on the
students before entering
the school year and
readministering it before
it ends to see whether
they have been able to
develop their feelings
about themselves.

It is obtained by direct
 observation of behaviors
(Two or more separate Example: Splitting the
observers at the same MMPI into two and
time), consistency across administering part 1
Simultaneous raters. It is assessed using which consists of odd
Measurements Inter-rater reliability. numbered questions first
and then followed by part
Example: The behavior of 2 which includes even
Karen was observed by 3 numbered questions.
different psychologists
and all of them agreed
that she has narcissistic
personality disorder.

The degree of consistency

of scores from separate
items on a test or
questionnaire consisting
of multiple items. All the
Internal Consistency items or groups of items
tapping the same
processes. Researchers
often split the set of
items in half, compute a
separate score of each
half, and then evaluate
the degree of agreement THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RELIABILITY AND
between the two scores. VALIDITY
It is assessed using the
Split-half Reliability.
They are partially related and partially
independent from each other. Reliability is a
In other terms, its
purpose is to determine prerequisite for validity. Measurement
whether both halves of procedures cannot be valid unless they are
the test contribute to the reliable. However, it is not necessary for a
functionality of the test in measurement to be valid before it can become
an equal manner. It is reliable.
assessed using split-half
reliability in which the In simpler terms, a measurement cannot be
total number or test valid without being reliable while it can be
questions are split into reliable even if it is not valid. Meaning to say, a
two (split by odd and measurement needs to be able to measure the
even numbers). After
variable multiples times without having
doing so, the assessor
problems with the stability of its results
would administer the
(reliable) before it can be considered accurate
tests on the same person
in an attempt to (valid). However, there are instances wherein
determine whether both even though the measurement is capable of
halves contribute to the measuring a variable it would still not going to
overall functionality of be considered as “valid” for this specific
the test. situation since it would not be useful in this
scenario because it will not be able to measure the jerseys of basketball
what is needed to be measured “at the players do not implicate
moment”. order or ranking. It does
not label player number
In layman’s term, there needs to be consistency 1 as the most superior
(reliability) before the measurement can be one among the players.
The numbers are merely
considered as accurate (valid). However, there
used to differentiate
are instances wherein the tool would be
players from one
considered consistent (reliable) but not accurate
another. Examples also
(valid) since it may be capable of measuring a include colors, cellphone
variable with consistency, but it cannot measure numbers, gender, course.
the variable that is “currently” needed to be
measured.
It represents qualitative
Example: IQ test can be both reliable and valid information but with
when measuring intelligence. However, even ranking or order
though it is reliable in measuring intelligence, it included. It can only tell
would not be valid when used as a measuring us that a difference exists
tool for self-esteem. without the possibility of
telling the direction or
Ordinal Scale magnitude of the
difference or the amount
of the number between
the two variables.

Example: Rankings in
school which signify
order based on the GPA
SCALES OF MEASUREMENT of the students.

Scales define the type of categories we use in It is a type of scale which

measurement and the selection of a scale has
direct impact on our ability to describe
relationships between variables.
Simply represents
qualitative difference in
the variable measured. It
means that nominal scale
uses numbers however, it
does not use these
numerical figures for
ranking or order. The
numbers used in nominal
scale only exist to
differentiate variables
from one another.
Nominal Scale
Example: The numbers in
covers both ranking or
order as well as the value
of their intervals from
one another. We can
determine the distance
and magnitude of a
difference. It may have
an arbitrary zero.
Example: School rankings
since the difference
Interval Scale between the GPA of the
students can be
measured. These
includes Celsius,
Fahrenheit, time in
seconds.
Equal Interval: It means
that the interval between
 the two variables is
equally distributed.
Positive aspects:

It consists of equal *It is done since only the

ordered categories individual has direct
anchored by a zero point access to his mind.
that is not arbitrary but
meaningful (it has *More direct measure.
absolute zero which
represents absence). It
Ratio Scale allows us to determine Self-report
direction, magnitude,
and the ratio of
difference. Negative aspects:

Example: Kelvin since it *Participants may

has an absolute zero, manipulate their
absentees in class, empty responses to create a
cans. better self-image or to
please the experimenter.

*The response can also

be influenced by
wording of the questions
and other aspects of the
situation.

MODALITIES OF MEASUREMENT

One can measure a construct by selecting a Physical manesfitations

measure from three main categories. There are of the underlying
three basic modalities of measurement. construct. Examples are
EEG, EKG, Galvanic skin
response, perspiration,
PET, FMRI.
Self-report measures
refer to the method in
which you would ask a Advantages:
participant to describe
his behavior, to express It provides accurate,
his opinion or reliable, and well-
characterize his defined measurements
experience in an that are dependent on
interview or by using a the subjective
questionnaire with Physiological interpretation.
ratings. Measurement
 compare them.
Disadvantages:
Beware of situational
*Equipment is usually changes in behavior
expensive or (such as disruptive
unavailable. behavior is school versus
when observed) and
*Presence of monitoring different behavioral
devices may create indications of a
unnatural situations. construct.

*Question: Are these

procedures valid
measure of the OTHER ASPECTS OF MEASUREMENTS
construct (increase in
heart rate to fear,
arousal).
Sometimes you can use
two (or more) different
These are the behaviors procedures to measure
that can be observed the same variable. For
and measured. Examples example, using heart rate
are reaction time, and questionnaires as a
reading speed, focus of measure of fear. The
attention, disruptive issue is that the two
Behavioral behavior, number of Multiple Measures variables may not behave
Measurement words recalled on a in the same manner.
memory test.

For example, a specific

therapy for treating fear
may have large effect on
behavior but no effect on
heart rate. Additionally,
one measure can be
more sensitive than
another. Furthermore,
How to select a proper different measures may
behavioral measure? indicate different
dimensions of the
*It depends on the variable and change bat
purpose of the study. different times during
the treatment.
*In clinical setting the
same disorder can reveal
itself through different
symptoms.

*In studying memory, SENSITIVITY AND RANGE EFFETCS

we want to have the
same measure for all the
The are the measures sensitive enough to the
subjects to be able to
type and magnitude of the changes that are
expected. For example, seconds versus Experimenter bias is the way experimenter
milliseconds, difficult versus easy exams. influences results. For example, by being warm
and friendly with one group of participants vs.
cold and stern with another group.

The clustering of scores

at the high end of a
measurement scale,
Ceiling Effect allowing little or no
possibility of increases in
value. For example, tests
that are too easy.
To avoid participant reactivity and experimenter
bias we use “blind” experiments. A research
study shows single blind if the researcher does
not know the predicted outcome while double
blind is when the researcher and the
participants are unaware of the outcome.

The clustering of scores

at the low end of a
measurement scale,
Floor Effect allowing little or no
possibility of decreases
in value. For example,
the tests are too
difficult.

These are usually a

consequence of using a
measure that is
Range Effects inappropriate for a
particular group. For
example, 4th grade test
for college students.

PARTICIPANT REACTIVITY AND EXPERIMENTER

BIAS

Participant reactivity is the way a participant

reacts to the experimental situation. For
example, overly cooperative, overly defensive,
hostile. To avoid these problems one can, try to
disguise the true purpose of the experiment or
observe individuals without their awareness
(beware of ethical issues).