Lecture 4

Economic Anthropology
• Economy has three major caders
1. Production
2. Consumption
3. Distribution
Services, goods, information, knowledge etc.
Production in different societies
• Production in Fruraging societies
• Production in Pestoral society
• Prouction in agrarian society (extensive and intensive)
• Production in industrial society (extensive and intensive)
Production in fouraging society
• How production occurs?
• Example : Kalhari people
• Use to live close to water and production source (light, water, fertile land) ,
they used to travel around 1 day trip about 12 sqkm2
• They used to travel and hunt for different food sources after search
• Camping near production site.
• Most important work for them  leaisure,f or which they used to take out
standard time
• Used to exchange things for richness
• Present dayexample: Austarian aborignals.
Production in pestoral society
• Example: Budhist monarchy
• Tibit society
• Northern Indian societies
• They used to impose taxes, on pestoral work.
• How taxes imposition?
• On the basis of size of animal and size od clan holding the animal
• E.g. they will be reviewed for taxation every year.
• Various famous treaties were made by them that still are followed
• Budhist sociaties still rent out land services and pestures taxes
• However the services are now limted to time period specifications and job contracts.
Consumption in pestoral societies
• All production was under control og chiefdom  chief used to distribute
these sources 
• People who served more and had more family to feed on were used to be
given more than others (potential consumers)
• Water system became channelized during this era
• Currency validity increased (currency in the form of skin introduced) some
times stones and metals were used for exchnages
• Travel from place to place became common which led to establishment of
international relation in the long run.
• Used to settle territory issues via making commitments and proper deals.
Production in agrigarian society
1. Plantation:
• Utlity of plats
• Types of plants
• Gathering useful plants mostly by women
• Ownership of plants came before ownership of animals and humans.
1. Gathering  animal’s hunting was more of a responsibility of men.
How production and consumption?
• Extensive production: agriculture was dependent upon rain, little production less organized, didn’t
know about better agricultural and agrigarian practices
• e.g. Ibo-Sweden farmers in Nigeria
• Locando Maya (Mexico)
• Enga Pestorial
• There was no concept of landownership in extensive farming
• Intensive agriculture: when you synthesize, skillfull produce and use land and commonlize use of
machenry
• Most advanced form of agriculture now a days
• Practice like modern agriculture vertical farming took rook here
• Ownership of land also established.
• User fructury right system introduced  use land but canot own it e.g. modern day mizary in Sindh
• Families used to act as a firm , all members used to work together to
create a solid firm  labour division was there
• “ group of people, united by kinship, who share residence and
organized production & distribute it among themselves leading to a
household.
• Firm  an institution composed of kin & non-kins that is organized
primaril for financial gains.
• Division of labour by gender
Distribution patterns
• Dutrubution has further several methods
1. Reciprocity
2. Redistribution
3. Market exchange
Reciprocity

• Exhange , give and take of goods is called reciprocity etc

• General  again one way exchange, mostly in families from parents to children , elder
to children (child financial help)
• E.g. Semai of Malaysia, pakistan
• Negative  held by force or threat and it’s a way of transmission of goods e.g. Chinese
and mongore (warriors) society , they used to threats Chinese for gifts to avoid wars
• Balanced  give and take, mostly in states
• Time period is important and valued consciousness
• E.g Kulla ring system in Australia (Oceania)
Kulla Ring system
• Explored by Maanoski in people of Oceania, (malasiya, Australia,
newzeland and some other)
• People used to gather and bring their unique things of their island, sit
together  will revolve the basket containing these thing clockwise
and anti-clockwise.
• Material: expensive stones, glass materials, unique artifacts,
important commoidities, garlands, tools and even womens.
• Clockwise rotation  Soulava
• Anti-clockwise roration Mawala
Re-distrubution
1. Podaltch system
2. Cargo system
3. Labelling system
• Podaltch system  ceremony of exagartion and boosting about status to ascribe
power in society e.g.
• North America
• Sometimes een religious protection is acquired in such ceremonies
• Today Kwkkuilt (N.America and Alaska)

• Exageration for the purpose of getting leadership (famous ceremony)

• Cargo system
• Religious behaviour to avoid Nahosat especially black people  people should offer 12 courses of
cargo otherwise some witch attack
• They gather and distribute things to get rid of bad omen
• E.g. 12 Jamaratein in village
• Kahtam shareef etc
• The ordler people used to do this on boats (12 boats usually)
• E.g. Moka tradition
• Govt taxation is redistribution
• Cargo is also a lavelling system
• Lavelling system : Zakat system for purity of wealth
• Cargo and podaltch also come under this system
Market system
• Capaitalism
• Surplus value
• Accomodation and resistance to captilism (e.g. Islamic socialization
and communism)
Lecture 5
Political Anthropology
• Politics  power of designation, game of status
• Political anthropolgists study 2 things
1. Social stratification and differenciation
2. Types of societies
Types of socities (on the basis of pol-org)
• Bands
• Tribes
• Chiefdomes
• Govt/states
On the basis of social differenciation
1. Egualitarian: all people are given respoest as they deserve (equity)
e.f. father, brother, son.
2. Ranked: status given o inheritance mostly in tribal societies
E.g. Akbar Bughti, Kherbakhs, Mehran, Mengal and Kalat.
3. Stratified: Bradari system, many ranks e.g. Mughals, Arians (caste,
creed and color or religious differences)
Bands
• Smaller then tribes
• Fixed number of social postions
• Balanced reciprocity is common
• Mostly egalitarian
• Leader -> Big man
• Types:
• Simple band : 12-25 people mostly leader, bigman remain invisible )
• Composite band: greater then 25, mixtyre of 2-3 bands, large no. of
kinship e.g. Comanche band  where bigman or leader is prominent.
Characteristics of Bigman (leader)
• A man having convincing power of influence, use some sort of
authority e.g advice.
• No official office or specialized place,
• How approves authority: via warfare technique and because people
believe on his Chrisma.
Tribes
• Formally institutionalized and non-centralized political system
• It’s the name of greater cohesion of society, that lead to tribes formation.
• Sodality: kins and non kins mixture & cohesiveness e.g Baloch tribe (kinsO some warfare experts
(nonkins)  sodality

Warfare is a must in tribes

Volutary association (affiliations)
e.g. Cheyenne African , balock tribes etc.
Seasonal gather (e.g. competition, combars, melas etc)
Leadership (pol+religiojn leadership same)
Councel of elders in case of more tribes (e.g. Lagari, jatai, Zardari, rind etc.
Leadersgip wing mst be there due to war
chiefdoms
• Chief  head of whole system of tribes
• Traditions: followrds no vntribution
• Under chief leader 2 categories of chief occur
• Sacred: from the blood of chieves , having power to rule like kings
• Small chieves : from the mutual bloog, commoners, e.g. marrage,
outside schied family.  work like meditators and bureocrates
Fixed to implement rules given by sacred chiefs.
• Chiefdoms  chief / subchief /small scared chiefs
• And commoners
States/ govts
• Constitution
• Govt body
• Differentiation between
• States
• 3 levels
• Ruling elite
• Bureucracy
• Common people