Professional Documents
Culture Documents
John
Loucks
St. Edward’s
University
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Chapter 4
Introduction to Probability
Experiments, Counting Rules,
and Assigning Probabilities
Events and Their Probability
Some Basic Relationships
of Probability
Conditional Probability
Bayes’ Theorem
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Uncertainties
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Probability
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Probability as a Numerical Measure
of the Likelihood of Occurrence
0 .5 1
Probability:
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Statistical Experiments
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An Experiment and Its Sample Space
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An Experiment and Its Sample Space
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A Counting Rule for
Multiple-Step Experiments
Example: Bradley Investments
Bradley Investments can be viewed as a two-step
experiment. It involves two stocks, each with a set of
experimental outcomes.
Markley Oil: n1 = 4
Collins Mining: n2 = 2
Total Number of
Experimental Outcomes: n1n2 = (4)(2) = 8
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Tree Diagram
N N!
CnN
n n !(N n )!
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Counting Rule for Permutations
N N!
PnN n !
n (N n )!
where:
Ei is the ith experimental outcome
and P(Ei) is its probability
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Assigning Probabilities
where:
n is the number of experimental outcomes
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Assigning Probabilities
Classical Method
Assigning probabilities based on the assumption
of equally likely outcomes
Subjective Method
Assigning probabilities based on judgment
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Classical Method
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Relative Frequency Method
Number of Number
Polishers Rented of Days Probability
0 4 .10
1 6 .15
2 18 .45 4/40
3 10 .25
4 2 .05
40 1.00
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Subjective Method
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Subjective Method
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Events and Their Probabilities
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Events and Their Probabilities
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Events and Their Probabilities
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Some Basic Relationships of Probability
Complement of an Event
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Complement of an Event
Sample
Event A Ac Space S
Venn
Diagram
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Union of Two Events
Sample
Event A Event B Space S
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Union of Two Events
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Intersection of Two Events
Sample
Event A Event B Space S
Intersection of A and B
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Intersection of Two Events
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Addition Law
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Addition Law
Sample
Event A Event B Space S
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Mutually Exclusive Events
There is no need to
include “ P(A B”
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Conditional Probability
P( A B )
P( A|B)
P( B )
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Conditional Probability
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Multiplication Law
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Multiplication Law
Collins Mining
Markley Oil Profitable (C) Not Profitable (Cc) Total
Joint Probabilities
(appear in the body
Marginal Probabilities
of the table)
(appear in the margins
of the table)
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Independent Events
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Multiplication Law
for Independent Events
The multiplication law also can be used as a test to see
if two events are independent.
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Multiplication Law
for Independent Events
Example: Bradley Investments
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Mutual Exclusiveness and Independence
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Bayes’ Theorem
Example: L. S. Clothiers
A proposed shopping center will provide strong
competition for downtown businesses like L. S.
Clothiers. If the shopping center is built, the owner
of L. S. Clothiers feels it would be best to relocate to
the shopping center.
The shopping center cannot be built unless a
zoning change is approved by the town council.
The planning board must first make a
recommendation, for or against the zoning change,
to the council.
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Prior Probabilities
Example: L. S. Clothiers
Let:
A1 = town council approves the zoning change
A2 = town council disapproves the change
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New Information
Example: L. S. Clothiers
The planning board has recommended against
the zoning change. Let B denote the event of a
negative recommendation by the planning board.
Given that B has occurred, should L. S. Clothiers
revise the probabilities that the town council will
approve or disapprove the zoning change?
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Conditional Probabilities
Example: L. S. Clothiers
Past history with the planning board and the town
council indicates the following:
P(B|A1) = .2 P(B|A2) = .9
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Tree Diagram
Example: L. S. Clothiers
P(B|A2) = .9
P(A2 B) = .27
P(A2) = .3
c P(A2 Bc) = .03
P(B |A2) = .1
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Bayes’ Theorem
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Posterior Probabilities
Example: L. S. Clothiers
Given the planning board’s recommendation not
to approve the zoning change, we revise the prior
probabilities as follows:
P( A1 )P( B| A1 )
P( A1 |B)
P( A1 )P( B| A1 ) P( A2 )P( B| A2 )
(. 7 )(. 2 )
(. 7 )(. 2 ) (. 3)(. 9)
= .34
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Posterior Probabilities
Example: L. S. Clothiers
The planning board’s recommendation is good
news for L. S. Clothiers. The posterior probability of
the town council approving the zoning change is .34
compared to a prior probability of .70.
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Bayes’ Theorem: Tabular Approach
Example: L. S. Clothiers
• Step 1
Prepare the following three columns:
Column 1 The mutually exclusive events for
which posterior probabilities are desired.
Column 2 The prior probabilities for the events.
Column 3 The conditional probabilities of the
new information given each event.
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Bayes’ Theorem: Tabular Approach
Example: L. S. Clothiers
• Step 1
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Prior Conditional
Events Probabilities Probabilities
Ai P(Ai) P(B|Ai)
A1 .7 .2
A2 .3 .9
1.0
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Bayes’ Theorem: Tabular Approach
Example: L. S. Clothiers
• Step 2
Prepare the fourth column:
Column 4
Compute the joint probabilities for each event and
the new information B by using the multiplication
law.
Multiply the prior probabilities in column 2 by the
corresponding conditional probabilities in column 3.
That is, P(Ai B) = P(Ai) P(B|Ai).
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Bayes’ Theorem: Tabular Approach
Example: L. S. Clothiers
• Step 2
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Prior Conditional Joint
Events Probabilities Probabilities Probabilities
Ai P(Ai) P(B|Ai) P(Ai B)
A1 .7 .2 .14
A2 .3 .9 .27
.7 x .2
1.0
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Bayes’ Theorem: Tabular Approach
Example: L. S. Clothiers
• Step 2 (continued)
We see that there is a .14 probability of the town
council approving the zoning change and a
negative recommendation by the planning board.
There is a .27 probability of the town council
disapproving the zoning change and a negative
recommendation by the planning board.
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Bayes’ Theorem: Tabular Approach
Example: L. S. Clothiers
• Step 3
Sum the joint probabilities in Column 4. The
sum is the probability of the new information,
P(B). The sum .14 + .27 shows an overall
probability of .41 of a negative recommendation
by the planning board.
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Bayes’ Theorem: Tabular Approach
Example: L. S. Clothiers
• Step 3
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Prior Conditional Joint
Events Probabilities Probabilities Probabilities
Ai P(Ai) P(B|Ai) P(Ai B)
A1 .7 .2 .14
A2 .3 .9 .27
1.0 P(B) = .41
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Bayes’ Theorem: Tabular Approach
Example: L. S. Clothiers
• Step 4
Prepare the fifth column:
Column 5
Compute the posterior probabilities using the
basic relationship of conditional probability.
P ( Ai B)
P( Ai | B)
P( B)
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Bayes’ Theorem: Tabular Approach
Example: L. S. Clothiers
• Step 4
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Prior Conditional Joint Posterior
Events Probabilities Probabilities Probabilities Probabilities
Ai P(Ai) P(B|Ai) P(Ai B) P(Ai |B)
A1 .7 .2 .14 .3415
A2 .3 .9 .27 .6585
1.0 P(B) = .41 1.0000
.14/.41
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Using Excel to Compute
Posterior Probabilities
Formula Worksheet
A B C D E
Prior Conditional Joint Posterior
1 Events
Probabilities Probabilities Probabilities Probabilities
2 A1 0.7 0.2 =B2*C2 =D2/$D$4
3 A2 0.3 0.9 =B3*C3 =D3/$D$4
4 =SUM(B2:B3) =SUM(D2:D3) =SUM(E2:E3)
5
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Using Excel to Compute
Posterior Probabilities
Value Worksheet
A B C D E
Prior Conditional Joint Posterior
1 Events
Probabilities Probabilities Probabilities Probabilities
2 A1 0.7 0.2 0.14 0.3415
3 A2 0.3 0.9 0.27 0.6585
4 1.0 0.41 1.0000
5
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End of Chapter 4
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