Lesson 4: Types of Sentences

x  In writing and speaking it is important to know the use of sentence types, its importance specifically in writing
because , if you're using only one type of sentence, your writing becomes very bland, very boring, very hard to
follow, because it's a little bit monotone. So what you need to do is you need to vary... You need a variety of
sentence structures in your writing to give it a little bit more life.  Please provide brief introduction to serve as
overview of this lesson.
Simple Sentences
- A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb.
- A simple sentence contains one main clause.
- It expresses a single complete thought that can stand on its own.
Examples:
• The baby cried for food. – There is a subject and a verb that expresses a complete thought.  
• The plane flew over the stadium.
• Professor Maple’s intelligent students completed and turned in their homework.

A simple sentence does not necessarily have to be short. It can have adjectives. In this case,  there are two verbs,
completed and turned in. However, the sentence expresses one complete thought and therefore is a simple
sentence.
• Mike and Raymart ate too much and felt sick.
A simple sentence does not necessarily have to be short. It can have adjectives. In this case, there are two verbs,
completed and turned in. However, the sentence expresses one complete thought and therefore is a simple
sentence. Although there are two subjects and two verbs, it is still a simple sentence because both verbs
share the same subjects and express one complete thought.
 Lesson 4: Types of Sentences

Compound Sentences

A compound sentence has two independent clauses. An independent

clause is a part of a sentence that can stand alone because it
contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought.
Basically, a compound contains two simple sentences.
These independent clauses are joined by a conjunction (for, and, nor,
but, or, yet, so).

Examples:
• The bus stopped, and we got out.
• The shoplifter had stolen clothes, so he ran once he saw the police.
 Both sides of the conjunction “so” are complete sentences. “The
shoplifter had stolen clothes” can stand alone and so can “he ran
once he saw the police.” Therefore, this is a compound sentence.
• They spoke to him in Spanish, but he responded in English.
 This is also a compound sentence that uses a conjunction to
separate two individual clauses.
 Lesson 4: Types of Sentences
Complex Sentences
A complex sentence is an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A dependent clause either
lacks a subject or a verb or has both a subject and a verb that does not express a complete thought.
A complex sentence always has a subordinator (as, because, since, after, although, when) or relative pronouns (who,
that, which).
Examples:
• After eating lunch at The Cheesecake Factory, Ferdie went to the gym to exercise.
 The independent clause is “Ferdie went to the gym to exercise.” The subordinating clause before it is dependent
on the main, independent clause. If one were to say “after eating lunch at The Cheesecake Factory,” it would be an
incomplete thought.
• Opinionated women are given disadvantages in societies that privilege male accomplishments.
 The subject is “opinionated women” and the verb is “are given.” The first part of the sentence “opinionated women
are given disadvantages in societies” is an independent clause that expresses a complete thought. The following
“that privilege male accomplishments” is a relative clause that describes which types of societies.

Compound-Complex Sentences
A compound-complex sentence has two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
Examples:
• After the two soccer players lost their game, they joined their other teammates for lunch, and they went to the
movies.
 If we remove the dependent clause “after the two soccer players lost their game,” we have a compound sentence.
The dependent clause makes this sentence compound-complex.
The man believed in the system, and he knew that justice would prevail after the murderer was sent to jail.
 Lesson 5: PARALLEL SENTENCE 
PARALLELISM
Parallelism or parallel construction means the use of the same pattern of words for two or more ideas that have the same
level of importance. When a sentence or passage lacks parallel construction, it is likely to seem disorganized. The
reader may have to reread it to grasp the meaning or may misunderstand the relationship among ideas.
In addition ,Parallelism is the repetition of a chosen grammatical form within a sentence. By making each compared item
or idea in your sentence follow the same grammatical pattern, you create a parallel construction.

Example: The scientist collected, dried, and weighed the samples.

. When Parallel Structure is Required
• For items in a list.
• For words or phrases joined by a coordinating conjunction: and, but, yet, or, nor, for, so.
• For words or phrases that follow each half of a correlative conjunction such as both/and, not only/but also, (n)either/(n)or,
whether/or.
• For words or phrases introduced by a comparison word, usually than, or as.
PUT STRUCTURALLY EQUIVALENT WORDS OR PHRASES IN THE SAME PART OF SPEECH.
• Put structurally equivalent words of phrases in the same part of speech.
• Not parallel: The position required experience, friendly, and get up early.
• Parallel (all nouns): The position required experience, friendliness, and a willingness to get up early.
• Parallel (all adjectives): They wanted someone who was experienced, friendly, and willing to get up early.
• Parallel (all verbs): They wanted someone who had experience, was friendly, and liked to get up early
 Parallel structure means using the same form for words that have the same level of importance in a
sentence or for a list of items that are joined by a coordinating conjunction, such as and or or.
 Lesson 6: Sentence Fault SENTENCE FAULT

X  The purpose of writing is to communicate facts, feelings and ideas effectively.  For the clarity of expressions, we need
to write correct sentences, which conform to the conventions of written English. Many people fail to recognize errors
in sentence structure. This failure creates serious problems in communication and leaves readers feeling confused,
frustrated, and unwilling to read any further. Sentence faults are major errors and should never occur in college-
level writing.
There are three sentence fault ,the Fragments, comma splice and run-on sentence and faulty coordination;

1. Fragments
A sentence must have a subject and a verb and be a complete thought. When a dependent (subordinate) clause or a
phrase is presented as a sentence, it is called a fragment. The sentence fragments: a group of words incorrectly
punctuated as if it were a complete sentence that lacks a subject, verb, or both; or is a dependent clause that is not
attached to an independent clause.
Most fragments are missing the subject, the verb, or both. Identifying some fragments can be confusing because they
may actually contain a subject and a verb. However, these nouns and verbs do not form an independent clause
when they follow subordinating conjunctions, adverbs, or relative pronouns.
Example of a sentence fragment: After the party starts.
party=subject starts=verb
This phrase has a noun and a verb; however, the subordinating conjunction “after” makes it a dependent clause.
Therefore, this dependent clause needs to be linked to an independent clause.

Correct sentence: After the party starts, I will be able to relax.

 Lesson 6: Sentence Fault SENTENCE FAULT
Fragments commonly occur:

• With subordinate clauses

Typical error: I sent Bobby to the store. Because we’d run out of milk.
Correct: I sent Bobby to the store because we’d run out of milk.

• With prepositional phrases

Typical error: It came as a great relief. To everyone.
Correct: It came as a great relief to everyone.
Typical error: Gordon hoped that Emma would abandon the idea of suing the company. For her own sake as much as for
anybody else’s.
Correct: Gordon hoped that Emma would abandon the idea of suing the company, for her own sake as much as for
anybody else’s.

• With verbal phrases

Typical error: Women need to have an average of two children. To keep the world’s population constant in the long term.
Correct: Women need to have an average of two children to keep the world’s population constant in the long term.
Typical error: She sat with the telephone on her lap. Waiting for the familiar ring, wondering whether she would ever get
beyond the agony of waiting.
Correct: She sat with the telephone on her lap, waiting for the familiar ring, wondering whether she would ever get beyond
the agony of waiting.  
 
 
 Lesson 6: Sentence Fault SENTENCE FAULT

2. Comma Splice and Run-on Sentence

A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses are not joined correctly. An independent
clause is a group of words that can stand alone as a sentence, as in, “the dog runs.”

Writing may be confusing or unclear if independent clauses are joined incorrectly.

There are two types of run-on sentences: fused sentences and comma splices. A fused sentence consists of
two independent clauses, but both the comma and coordinating conjunction are missing.

A comma splice A comma splice consists of two or more independent clauses that follow one another and
are incorrectly linked together only with a comma (or commas). The coordinating conjunction is
missing.

Fused sentence: My friend read my paper she said it was excellent.

independent clause independent clause
 
Comma splice: My friend read my paper, I know she likes it.
independent clause independent clause  
 Lesson 6: Sentence Fault SENTENCE FAULT
Solution

Examples of Run-on Sentences

Wrong: It’s raining we need to take an umbrella with us.
Wrong: It’s raining, we need to take an umbrella with us. (comma splice)
Correct: It’s raining. We need to take an umbrella with us.
Correct: It’s raining, so we need to take an umbrella with us.
Correct: Because it’s raining, we need to take an umbrella with us.
Correct: It’s raining; therefore, we need to take an umbrella with us.

How to fix a run-on sentence:

There are at least four easy ways to connect sentences properly and avoid writing a run-on sentence:
1. Use a period to create two sentences.
Example: I want to go to the store. I need to buy a new shirt.
2. Use a semicolon.
Example: I want to go to the store; I need to buy a new shirt.
3. Use a coma plus a coordinating conjunction.
Example: I need to buy a new shirt, so I want to go to the store.
4. Use a subordinating conjunction.
Examples:
I want to go to the store because I need to buy a new shirt.
Because I need to buy a new shirt, I want to go to the store.  
 
 Lesson 6: Sentence Fault SENTENCE FAULT

3. Faulty Coordination

Faulty coordination occurs when two coordinate clauses have

unequal ideas and these two clauses are mistakenly treated as
though they should be given equal emphasis.

Examples:
• In-exacted: I couldn’t return you the book and I didn’t finish reading
it.
• Revised: I couldn’t return you the book because I didn’t finish
reading it.
• In-exacted: I couldn’t repair my bicycle and I didn’t have the right
tools.
• Revised: I couldn’t repair my bicycle because I didn’t have the right
tools.
 Lesson 7: FIGURES OF SPEECH
A figure of speech expresses an idea, thought, or image with words which carry meanings beyond their literal
ones or words or phrases that depart from straightforward literal language. Figures of speech are often
used and crafted for emphasis, freshness, expression, or clarity. Figures of speech give extra dimension
to language by stimulating the imagination and evoking visual, sensual imagery, such language paints a
mental picture in words.
In some respects, figures of speech   are a set of tools essential for all writers. Conveying a complex idea can
be virtually impossible without an image or analogy.
Examples:
He ran fast. (literal)
He ran like the wind. (figurative). Here, “like the wind” is a figure of speech.

Figures of speech serve two roles:   as decoration and for clarity. Figures of speech are decorations used in
writing. Without them, a writing would be boring.
(A) DECORATION: Examples of figures of speech as decoration:
• We all love to decorate our home we add colors.
• What would your home be like without them?
• They give beauty and variety to what we wish to show.
Same way, figures
(B) CLARITY:
A complex subject can best be conveyed imaginatively and captivatingly. The purpose of learning figures of
speech is to make one be  aware, as writers, of the power and degrees of choice one has when using it in
English.
 
 Lesson 7: FIGURES OF SPEECH
TYPES OF FIGURES OF SPEECH
1. Simile
A simile shows a sameness or comparison between two different objects or events. A simile is usually
introduced with the words like, as, as…….. so.
Examples:
• She is as pretty as a picture.
• The story was as dull as ditch water.

2. METAPHOR Metaphor
A metaphor is like a simile. Two objects are compared, without the words or used of as or like. It is an implied
simile.
Examples:
• He was a lion in the game.
• You are a rose.

3. PERSONIFICATION Personification
In personification, non-living objects, abstract ideas or qualities are spoken of as persons or human-beings or
giving human characteristics to non-human .
Examples:
• Let the floods clap their hands.
• I kissed the hand of death.
• The moon is the only witness in the crime.
 Lesson 7: FIGURES OF SPEECH

4. HYPERBOLE Hyperbole
A hyperbole is an exaggeration or overstatement. Hyperbole is a literary device often used in poetry, and is
frequently encountered in casual speech. Occasionally, newspapers and other media use hyperbole when
speaking of an event, to increase the impact of the story.
Examples:
• He nearly died laughing.
• I have told you a million times not to lie!
 
5. IRONY Irony
Irony is when one thing is said which means the exact opposite. With irony, the words used suggest the
opposite of the literal meaning.
The effect of irony, however, can depend upon the tone of voice and the context. It is humorous or lightly
sarcastic mode of speech. Words are used here to convey a meaning contrary to their literal meaning.
Examples:
• The police station got robbed.
• As soft as concrete.
 Lesson 7: FIGURES OF SPEECH

6. OXYMORON Oxymoron
An oxymoron is when two terms or words are used together in a sentence but they seem to
contradict each other. Oxymoron is a statement which, on the surface, seems to
contradict itself, a kind of crisp contradiction. An oxymoron is a figure of speech that
deliberately uses two differing ideas. This contradiction creates a paradoxical image in
the reader or listener’s mind that generates a new concept or meaning for the whole.
Oxymorons are used for a variety of purposes. Sometimes they are used to create a
little bit of drama for the reader; sometimes they are used to make a person stop and
think, whether to laugh or to wonder.
Examples:
• Life is bitter sweet.
• He is the wisest fool of them all.
• Deafening silence
• Definitely maybe
• Farewell reception
• Growing smaller
• Jumbo shrimp
• Only choice
• Open secret
 Lesson 7: FIGURES OF SPEECH

7. APOSTROPHE Apostrophe
An apostrophe is a development of personification in which the writer addresses absent or
inanimate objects, concept or ideas as if they were alive and could reply. A writer or the literary
speaker who uses apostrophe is directly speaking to someone who is either not physically
present, to someone who is dead, or to an inanimate object.

Examples:
• “Fair daffodils, we weep to see you haste away so soon”.
• “O wind, where have you been?”
• “Please, please clouds. Don’t rain today.”
8. Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is a word that imitates the sound it represents. When name an action by imitating
the sound associated with it, this is known as onomatopoeia. Examples of onomatopoeia are
also commonly found in poems and nursery rhymes written for children. Onomatopoeic words
produce strong images that can both delight and amuse kids when listening to their parents
read poetry.
 
Examples:
• The boom of the explosion.
• gurgle, meow, and woof
 Lesson 7: FIGURES OF SPEECH

9. ALLUSION Allusion
Allusion is a reference to some historical or literary event or person that has striking resemblance to
the subject under discussion. Allusion is used often in prose.

Examples:
• “We live under the nuclear sword of Damocles.”
• “He is a Romeo to every girl he meets.”

10. METONYMY Metonymy

Metonymy replaces a concept or object entirely with a related term. It serves colorful ways to take
the ordinary and dress it up in something poetic or beautiful.

Examples:
• We will swear loyalty to the crown. (Crown – in place of a royal person.)
• The White House will be making an announcement around noon today.
(Suits – in place of business people.)
• The White House or The Oval Office – used in place of the President or White
House staff
• Hollywood – to refer to the film industry.
 Lesson 7: FIGURES OF SPEECH

Pun • The word “head” can refer to counting cattle or

A pun is a clever play on words involving the multiple people.
meanings of an expression, or two expressions that • The word “bread” can be used to represent food
sound similar.  in general or money, e.g., he is the breadwinner;
music is my bread and butter.
Examples: • The word “wheels” refers to a vehicle.
• I’m drawn to art.  
• I need to look for my watch, but I don’t have the Paradox
time. A paradox is contrary to expectations, existing belief or
  perceived opinion. It is a statement that appears to
Synecdoche be self-contradictory.
Synecdoche (pronounced si-nek-duh-kee) takes an element
of the object and uses it to refer to the whole, the Examples:
whole for a part, the specific for the general, the • “War is peace.”
general for the specific, or the material for the thing • “Freedom is slavery.”
made from it. • “Ignorance is strength.”
• “You can save money by spending it.”
Examples: • “A rich man is no richer than a poor man.”
• The word “sails” is often used to refer to a whole
ship.
• The phrase “hired hands” can be used to refer to
THANK YOU!