The Biomechanics of

Human Skeletal
Articulations
SUBMITTED BY: BADAR ZAMAN
SUBMITTED TO: DR ABDUL RSHAD
UNITED COLLEGE OF PHYSICAL THERAPY
 Joint Architecture
• Terms:
– Articular Cartilage
– Articular Capsule
– Synovial Fluid
– Articular Fibrocartilage
 Joint Architecture
• Synarthroses • Diathroses
– Sutures – Gliding
– Syndesmoses – Hinge
– Pivot
– Condyloid
• Amphiarthroses
– Saddle
– Synchondroses
– Ball and socket
– Symphyses
 Synovial
Joints
• Categorized by number of axes of rotation
• Capabilities of joint motion also described
in terms of degree of freedom (df):
– Uniaxial: one axis, one df
– Biaxial: two axis, two df
– Triaxial: three axis, three df
• Bursae
• Tendon Sheaths
 Articular Cartilage
• Dense, white connective tissue that provides
a protective lubrication.
– 1-5 mm thick
– Coats ends of articulating
bones in diarthrodial joints
• Purpose
– 1) reduces amount of stress
between joints
– 2) allows movement with minimal friction
and wear
 Articular Fibrocartilage
• In form of menisci
• Possible purposes:
– Distribution of loads over joint
surface
– Improvement of fit of articulating
surfaces
– Limitation of bone slip within joint
– Protection of periphery of articulation
– Lubrication
– Shock Absorption
 Articular Connective
•
Tissue
Tendons & Ligaments
– Composed of collagen and elastic
fibers
– Cannot contract (like muscle), are passive
– Slightly extensible, and will return to
original length after being stretched
• Unless stretched beyond elastic limits
– Respond to altered habitual mechanical
stress by hypertrophying and
atrophying
• Ligament size proportional to is
 Joint Stability
• Ability of a joint to resist abnormal
displacement of the articulating
bones
– To resist dislocation
– To prevent injury to ligaments, muscles,
and tendons
• Includes:
– Shape of articulating bone
surfaces
– Arrangement of Ligaments and Muscles
– Other connective tissues
 Shape of Articulating
Bone Surfaces
• Articulating bone surfaces in joints of human
body are all approximately reciprocal shapes.
• Close-packed position
– Great joint stability
– Occurs at knee, wrist and interphalangeal
joints at full extension and for the ankle at
full dorsiflexion
• Loose-packed position
– Reduced joint stability
Arrangement of Ligaments and
Muscles
• Tension in ligaments and muscles contributes
significantly to joint stability
– Especially in the knee and shoulder
• Ligament rupture or stretching can result in
abnormal motion of articulating bone
ends
– Results in articular cartilage
damage
• Strong ligaments and muscles contribute to
joint stability
• Angle of Attachment
 Joint Flexibility
• Joint Flexibility
• Range of motion (ROM)
• Static flexibility
• Dynamic flexibility
• Research indicates that the two flexibility
components (static and dynamic) are
independent of one another
• Flexibility is joint-specific
 Measuring Joint Range of
Motion
• Measured directionally in units of degrees

• In anatomical position, all joints are

considered to be at zero degrees
– Past this = hyperextension

• ROM for extension = ROM for

flexion
 Factors Influencing Joint
Flexibility
• Shapes of articulating bone surfaces
• Intervening muscle
• Fatty tissue
• A function of:
– Relative laxity or extensibility of
collagenous tissues and muscles crossing
joint.
• ROM inhibited by tight ligaments and
muscles
 Flexibility & Injury
• Hypermobile Joint
• Limited (tight) joint flexibility can increase tearing or
rupturing of collagenous tissues at joint.
• Lax joint flexibility (low stability) leads to
displacement-related injuries.
• Flexibility decreases with aging
– Due to decreased levels of physical
activity
• No changes in flexibility during growth in
adolescence.
 Techniques for Increasing
Joint Flexibility
• Important for therapeutic and
rehabilitative programs
– To improve/maintain joint flexibility
• Techniques:
– Neuromuscular Response to Stretch
– Active and Passive Stretching
– Ballistic and Static Stretching
– Proprioceptive Neuromuscular
Facilitation
 Neuromuscular Response
to Stretch
• Golgi tendon organs (GTOs)
• Muscle Spindle
– Primary muscle spindle
– Secondary muscle spindle
• Stretch Reflex
• Reciprocal Inhibition
• Goal of stretching is to minimize spindle effect
and maximize GTO effect.
 Active and Passive
Stretching
• Active Stretching
– Ex: to stretch hamstrings, contract
quadriceps

• Passive Stretching
– Ex: to stretch with the force applied from
another person
Ballistic and Static Stretching
• Ballistic Stretching
• Static Stretching
• Static preferred over ballistic because
ballistic activates muscle
spindle response, which inhibits stretching.
• Both forms can induce soreness in muscles
not typically or habitually used.
Proprioceptive
Neuromuscular
• A group Facilitation (PNF)
of stretching procedures involving
alternating contraction and relaxation of
the muscles being stretched.
• Done to take advantage of GTO response.
• Requires partner or clinician
• Contract-relax-antagonist-contract
technique
• Agonist-contract-relax method
• Can significantly increase joint ROM over
single stretching session.
Common Joint Injuries and
Pathologies
• Due to: acute and overuse injuries, infection,
degenerative conditions.
• Sprains
• Dislocations
• Bursitis
• Arthritis
• Rheumatoid Arthritis
• Osteoarthritis