PROPULSION I

UNIT IV
NOZZLES
 Functions
• Accelerate the flow to a high velocity with minimum
total pressure loss
• Match exit and atmospheric pressure as closely as
desired
• Permit after burner operation without affecting main
engine operation, this function requires a variable nozzle
• Allow for cooling of walls
• Mix core and bypass streams of turbine if necessary
• Allow for thrust reversing if desired
• Suppress jet noise and Infrared radiation (IR) if required
• Thrust vector control if required
 Area Mach number relation
• Let us assume isentropic expansion through the nozzle
• Mass flow m =ρ Av= constant (1)
• ρ 1 A1v1 = ρ2 A2v2 (2)
• log(ρAv) = constant logρ +logA +logv =C (3)
• dρ/ρ + dA/A + dv/v =0 dv/v = -(dρ/ρ + dA/A) (4)
• h1 + v12/2 = h2 + v22/2 h1 - h2 = v22/2 - v12/2 (5)
• h+v2/2 = constant (6)
• dh+ v dv =0 (7)
• h = p/ ρ dh = dp/ ρ (8)
• Substitute (8) in (7) dp/ ρ + v dv =0
• v dv =- dp/ ρ (9)
• dv/v = - dp/ ρv2 (10)
• Equating (4) and (10) dρ/ρ + dA/A = dp/ ρv2
• dA/A = dp/ ρv2 - dρ/ρ = dp/ ρv2 (1- v2 dρ / dp )
• dp/dp = a2 dA/A = dp/ ρv2 (1- v2 /a2 )
• dA/A = dp/ ρv2 (1- M2 )
•• Exit
  velocity of flow in Nozzle
• h1 + v12/2 = h2 + v22/2 h = Cp T v22 = 2 Cp (T1 – T2 ) + v12
• Neglecting inlet velocity and substituting Cp = γ R/( γ-1)
• v2 =( 2 γ R (T1 – T2 ) /( γ-1))0.5
• v2 = ((2 γ R T1 ) (1- T1 /T2)/( γ-1))0.5
• T2/T1 =( P2/P1)( γ-1/ γ)
• v2 = ((2 γ R T1 ) (1- (P2 /P1) (γ-1/ γ) ) /( γ-1))0.5

• Ratio of Stagnation temperature to Static temperature

• h0 = h+v2/2 Cp T0 = Cp T + v2/2
• T0 = T + v2/2 Cp Cp = γ R/( γ-1)
• T0 / T = 1+ (v2 (γ-1)/2 γ RT) = 1+ (v2 (γ-1)/2a2)
• T0 / T = 1+ (M2 (γ-1)/2)
• Ratio of Stagnation pressure to Static pressure
• TO/T =( P0/P)( γ-1/ γ) ( P0/P) = (TO/T )( γ/ γ-1 )
• ( P0/P)= (1+ (M2 (γ-1)/2)) γ/ γ-1

• At Throat M* =1 For γ = 1.4 ( P0/P*)= 1.893 T0 / T* = 1.2

• Relationship between Mass flow rate and Area
• m/A =ρ * v = ρ * ((2 γ R T1 ) (1- (P2 /P1) (γ-1/ γ) ) /( γ-1))0.5
• PV γ = Constant V= Specific volume= 1/ ρ
• P/ ρ γ = P0/ ρ0 γ P/ ρ γ = P0/ ρ0 γ
• ρ/ ρ0 = (P/ P0)1/ γ ρ = ρ0 (P/ P0)1/ γ
• m/A = ρ0 (P/ P0)1/ γ * ((2 γ R T0 ) (1- (P /P0) (γ-1/ γ) ) /( γ-1))0.5
• = ρ0 ((2 γ R T0 )* (P/ P0)2/ γ* (1- (P /P0) (γ-1/ γ) ) /( γ-1))0.5
• ρ0 = P0 / R T0
• m/A = P0 /( R T0 )0.5 (2 γ/ ( γ-1))0.5 ((P/ P0)2/ γ - (P /P0) (γ-1/ γ) ))0.5
Variation along the Nozzle axis
 Converging Nozzle
• The simplest type of nozzle The • Exhaust of converging
exit cross-sectional flow area is
smaller than the inlet area. nozzle with matching
• Used for primary and/or fan exhaust and ambient
nozzle, or both. pressures
• Can operate under two different
conditions.
• In First condition the exit pressure
can match the ambient condition.
• For this case, the exit Mach
number is equal to or less than
unity and the exit pressure is
greater than or equal to the
reference pressure at the sonic
condition p*,
 Converging Nozzle
For the second condition, the ambient For a choked converging nozzle with an
efficiency less than unity, the nozzle exit
pressure is less than the value of p*. Mach number is actually slightly less
Inside the nozzle the flow accelerates up than one. However to simplify the
to the exit, and in the plane of the exit analyses, the sonic condition will be
the Mach number is unity. used for the choked case because the
difference has minimal effect on the
However, after the gas exits from the engine thrust and TSFC.
nozzle, it continues to expand in a two
dimensional manner and accelerate for a
short distance in an effort to match the
back pressure Exhaust of under expanded converging
In this small region the Mach number is nozzle
greater than 1. Eventually, a near-normal .
shock or series of oblique shocks occur
downstream of the nozzle, which
decelerates the flow to a subsonic
condition.
The flow remains subsonic after
these shocks. This condition is called
the supercritical or under expanded
condition:
 Throat
• Nozzle area expansion ratio = € = A2/ At = Nozzle exit area/
Throat area
• Putting M=1 at Throat
• p*/p1 = (2/( γ+1))
• V* = V1 ( γ+1)/2) ( γ-1)
• T* = 2T1/( γ+1)

• K= γ
 Choking of Convergent Nozzle

• Choking takes place when Nozzle critical

pressure p*> pa the ambient pressure
• p*= p04(1-((γg-1)/( γg+1)ηn))( γg/( γg-1)
• For ηn Nozzle efficiency 100% and γg for gas
1.33
• p*= p04/ 1.895
 Converging-Diverging Nozzle

• Seven conditions of a CD Nozzle

 Optimum Expansion
• The first condition to be considered is operation of the nozzle
with the nozzle exit pressure equal to the ambient conditions
and with the flow subsonic throughout (case 1, Fig. 5.4). The
maximum Mach number is at the minimum area. This nozzle
type typically is not operated in this regime,
• The second condition is shown as case 2 and is similar to case 1,
but now the Mach number at the minimum area is unity. Again,
this nozzle type is usually not operated in this regime.
• The third case to be considered is case 3, which is characterized
by smooth and shock less flow throughout the nozzle, and the
exit pressure matches the ambient pressure. In the converging
section the flow is subsonic, and in the diverging area the flow
is supersonic. For the ideal case, this would represent the
design condition of the nozzle because it would result in the
maximum thrust.
Over expanded converging-diverging nozzle
(Case 4).
 Over expanded converging-diverging nozzle
• For the fourth case the ambient
pressure is slightly above the
design exit pressure.
• This results in a complex two-
dimensional flow pattern outside
the nozzle, as shown in Figure
• This is considered to be an and the
flow suddenly is compressed and
decelerates outside of the nozzle.
• A series of compression waves and
expansion waves are generated
that can be calculated based on
two-dimensional compressible
flow.
• The net result is a series of shock
diamonds,"
 Under expanded converging-diverging nozzle
• For the fifth case the ambient pressure
is below the design exit pressure.
• This again results in a complex two-
dimensional flow pattern outside the
nozzle
• This is considered to be an under
expanded or supercritical case, and
the flow continues to expand and
accelerate outside the nozzle.
• A series of expansion waves and
compression waves are generated that
can be calculated based on two-
dimensional compressible flow.
• The net result is again a series of
"shock diamonds," which are opposite
in order to those found for the over
expanded case.
Over expansion with single normal shock several oblique shocks in diverging area.

• For the sixth case the ambient pressure is significantly

above the nozzle design exit pressure but below the
pressure covered in case 2,
• This condition results in a single normal shock in the nozzle
diverging region or a series of oblique and normal shocks
called A shocks.
• This is also an over expanded case and results in a subsonic
exit Mach number, which is undesirable from the
standpoint of thrust.
• A limiting condition of case 6 is an exit pressure that causes
a normal shock to occur exactly in the exit plane. This is
considered to be case 7.
• The case 4 falls between this limiting case and case 3.
• Expansion with single • Expansion with several
normal shock in diverging oblique (A) shocks in
area (Case 6). Oblique diverging area.
Shocks M<1
 Effects of Pressure Ratios on Engine
Performance
• When the nozzle exit pressure exactly matches the ambient
pressure, the only thrust component is due to the momentum flux.
• If the nozzle exit pressure is less than the ambient condition (over
expanded), a negative thrust due to the pressures results. However,
a larger-than-ideal thrust from the momentum flux occurs because
the exit velocity is larger than for the ideally expanded case.
• On the other hand, if the nozzle pressure is higher than the ambient
pressure (under expanded), a positive thrust results from the
pressure terms. However, a lower-than-ideal thrust results from the
momentum flux because a lower-than-ideal exit velocity occurs.
• In both cases for which the exit pressure, fails to match the ambient
pressure, the two thrust components have opposite trends,
Effects of Pressure Ratios on Engine
Performance
 Variable Nozzle
• Variable geometry is a way for nozzle to operate at maximum thrust or "on
design" under many different flight conditions
• For such a nozzle, the area of the exit, throat, or both is varied so that the
optimum exit pressure can be obtained.
• Variable nozzles are typically not used on commercial aircraft because of
the limited flight envelope -that is, the craft and engine basically are
optimally designed for one altitude and flight condition.
• Military fighters, on the other hand, must be designed to operate under a
variety of conditions, including aircraft carrier take off. As a result, most of
these engines have variable nozzles.
• Two nozzle shapes are usually used: a simple circular (iris) nozzle or a plug
nozzle.
• For plug nozzle, the exit area is not only varied but the throat area is
controlled. Thus, varying the axial location of the plug changes the area
ratio to adjust the exit pressure. The major problem with this geometry is
that the plug and the positioning mechanism are subjected to the extreme
free stream temperatures.
 Variable Nozzle
• In the second geometry the nozzle assembly is essentially
a series of curved "flaps," each of which is a four-bar
linkage system driven by a hydraulic piston.
• By moving the identical flaps fore-to-aft by identical
amounts, the areas are changed by prescribed amounts
based on the movement amplitude and flap shapes.
• Both the exit and throat areas are controlled.
• Positions between the two extremes can also be used to
optimize the performance.
• With the proper flap geometry or shape, the nozzle can be
operated as either a converging nozzle or a converging-
diverging nozzle.
• Furthermore, with the proper shape, the minimum and
exit areas can both be varied.
 Two-Step Nozzles.
Three types of configurations : one that has an initial low area ratio A2 /At
for operation at or near the earth's surface and a larger second area ratio
that improves performance at high altitudes. The extendible nozzle
requires actuators, a power supply, mechanisms for moving the extension
into position during flight, fastening and sealing devices.. The principal
concerns are a reliable rugged mechanism to move the extension into
position, the hot gas seal between the nozzle sections, and the extra weight
involved.
The droppable insert concept avoids the moving mechanism and gas seal
but has a potential stagnation temperature problem at the joint. It requires
a reliable release mechanism, and the ejected insert creates flying debris.
The dual bell nozzle concept uses two shortened bell nozzles combined into
one with a bump or inflection point between them. During ascent it
functions first at the lower area ratio, with separation occurring at the
inflection point. As altitude increases and the gas expands further, the flow
attaches itself downstream of this point, with the flow filling the full nozzle
exit section and operating with the higher area ratio at higher performance.
There is a small performance penalty for a compromised bell nozzle
Two-Step Nozzles.
Nozzle Concepts for After Burning Engines
Nozzle Concepts for After Burning Engines
 Plug nozzle
• The plug nozzle or aerospike nozzle has an annular doughnut-shaped
chamber with an annular nozzle slot.
• An alternate version has a number of individual small chambers (each
with low area ratio short nozzles, a round throat and a rectangular
exit) arranged in a circle around a common plug or spike.
• The outside aerodynamic boundary of the gas flow in the divergent
section of the nozzle is the interface between the hot gas and the
ambient air; there is no outer wall as in a conical or bell-shaped
nozzle.
• As the external or ambient pressure is reduced during the ascending
flight, this gas boundary expands outward, causes a change in pressure
distribution on the central spike, and allows an automatic and
continuous altitude compensation.
• The aerospike contour with the minimum flow losses turns out to be
very long, similar in length to an optimum bell nozzle
• The mass flow per unit exit area is relatively uniform over the cross
section and the divergence losses are minimal.
Plug nozzle
 Plug nozzle
• If the central plug is cut off or truncated and the wall contour is
slightly altered, then the nozzle will be very short, it will have
some internal supersonic waves and will show a small but real
loss in thrust compared to a nozzle with a full central spike.
• The pressure distribution and the heat transfer intensity vary
on the inner contoured spike wall surface.
• The pressure in the recirculating trapped gas of the subsonic
region below the bottom plate also exerts a thrust force.
• The losses caused by the cut-off spike can be largely offset by
injecting a small amount of the gas flow (about 1% of total
flow) through this base plate into the recirculating region, thus
enhancing the back pressure on the base plate.
• The advantages of the truncated aerospike are short length
(which helps to reduce the length and mass of the engine) full
altitude compensation, no flow separation from the wall at
lower altitudes, and ease of vehicle/engine integration for
 Plug nozzle
• The linear aerospike nozzle is a variation of the round axisymmetric
aerospike nozzle. Basically, it is an unrolled version of the circular
configuration.
• In the expansion deflection nozzle, the flow from the chamber is
directed radially outward away from the nozzle axis.
• The flow is turned on a curved contour outer diverging nozzle wall. The
nozzle has been shortened and has some internal oblique shock wave
losses.
• The hot gas flow leaving the chamber expands around a central plug.
The aerodynamic interface between the ambient air and gas flow forms
an inner boundary of the gas flow in the diverging nozzle section.
• As the ambient pressure is reduced, the hot gas flow fills more and
more of the nozzle diverging section.
• Altitude compensation is achieved by this change in flow boundary and
by changes in the pressure distribution on the outer walls.
 Plug nozzle
• Flow with under • Flow with Over
expansion at Altitude expansion (Sea Level)
 Effect of back pressure control

The throat diameter. Changing the nozzle throat area from its original
design value will change the engine design and the operating characteristics
of the engine at both on and off design conditions
At reduced engine corrected mass flow rates which correspond to reduced
engine throttle settings, the operating line of the multi stage compressor
moves closer to surge/ stall line which is not desirable. The operating line
can be moved away from stall or surge line by increasing the nozzle throat
area. This reduces the engine back pressure and increases the corrected
mass flow rate through the compressor
Large changes in throat area is required for after burning engines to
compensate for the large changes in temperature leaving the after burner.
The variable area nozzle required for an after burning engine can also be
used for non after burning conditions
Variable area nozzle improves the starting of the engine. Increase of throat
area to maximum value reduces the back pressure in the turbine and
increases its expansion ratio and the necessary turbine power for starting
the engine and can be produced at a lower turbine inlet temperature. Due
to reduction in engine back pressure the compressor can be started at a
lower engine speed which reduces the size of engine starter.
 Effect of efficiency on nozzle performance
• Lowering the nozzle efficiency tends to reduce nozzle pressure ratio. This can be
interpreted in two ways. For example, for a nozzle with a given total inlet pressure
and an area ratio designated so that the nozzle exit pressure matches the ambient
pressure, as the efficiency is decreased the exit Mach number declines as well. As a
result, the developed thrust also decreases.
• From another perspective, for a nozzle with an area ratio again designated so that
the nozzle exit pressure matches the ambient pressure, if a particular exit Mach
number is desired, the inlet total pressure is larger for the non-ideal case than for
the ideal one, thus requiring a higher pressure from the turbine.
• For subsonic flow, the nozzle pressure ratio decreases with decreasing efficiency.
However, for supersonic flow, the ratio increases with decreasing efficiency.
Therefore, achieving a given supersonic Mach number requires a larger nozzle
(larger exit area) for the non-ideal case than for the ideal one.
• Also, with a choked converging nozzle, more convergence is necessary for a nozzle
with losses than for an ideal nozzle. The Mach number is slightly less than one at
the minimum area and that the minimum area is slightly less than the sonic area
for efficiencies less than one.
• The specific heat ratio has minimal effects for both plots -especially for low Mach
numbers.
 Effect of efficiency on nozzle performance
• Variation of Mach number • Variation of area ratio with
with nozzle pressure ratio. Mach numbe
 
Over expanded and under expanded nozzles
 Over expanded and under expanded nozzles
• An under-expanded nozzle discharges the fluid at an exit pressure greater
than the external pressure because the exit area is too small for an
optimum area ratio. The expansion of the fluid is therefore incomplete
within the nozzle, and must take place outside. The nozzle exit pressure is
higher than the local atmospheric pressure.
• In an over-expanded nozzle the fluid attains a lower exit pressure than the
atmosphere as it has an exit area too large for optimum
• The different possible flow conditions in a supersonic nozzle are as follows:
• When the external pressure P3 is below the nozzle exit pressure P 2, the
nozzle will flow full but will have external expansion waves at its exit (i.e.,
under-expansion). The expansion of the gas inside the nozzle is incomplete
and the value of Exhaust velocity and Thrust will be less than at optimum
expansion
• For external pressures P3 slightly higher than the nozzle exit pressure
P2,the nozzle will continue to flow full. This occurs until P2 reaches a value
between about 25 and 40% of P3. The expansion is somewhat inefficient
and Exhaust velocity and Thrust will have lower values than an optimum
nozzle would have. Shock waves will exist outside the nozzle exit section.
 Over expanded and under expanded nozzles
• For higher external pressures, separation of the flow will
take place inside the divergent portion of the nozzle. The
diameter of the supersonic jet will be smaller than the
nozzle exit diameter.
• With steady flow, separation is typically axially symmetric.
The axial location of the separation plane depends on the
local pressure and the wall contour. The point of separation
travels downstream with decreasing external pressure.
• At the nozzle exit the flow in the center portion remains
supersonic, but is surrounded by an annular shaped section
of subsonic flow.
• There is a discontinuity at the separation location and the
thrust is reduced, compared to a nozzle that would have
been cut off at the separation plane.
• Shock waves exist outside the nozzle in the external plume.
 Over expanded and under expanded nozzles
• For nozzles in which the exit pressure is just below the value of the
inlet pressure, the pressure ratio is below the critical pressure ratio
and subsonic flow prevails throughout the entire nozzle.
• This condition occurs normally in rocket nozzles for a short time
during the start and stop transients. During transients, such as
start and stop, the separation may not be axially symmetric and
may cause momentary but large side forces on the nozzle.
• During a normal sea-level transient of a large rocket nozzle (before
the chamber pressure reaches its full value) some momentary flow
oscillations and non-symmetric separation of the jet can occur
during over-expanded flow operation. The resulting side forces can
be large and have caused failures of nozzle exit cone structures
and thrust vector control gimbal actuators.
 Ejector Nozzle
• This nozzle has a secondary air flow to control the effective
secondary nozzle area.
• A primary convergent nozzle is surrounded by a shroud
whose area matches the final area required when it is at
maximum speed.
• At lower speed the secondary air is bled into the shroud to
force the exhaust stream away from the walls.
• This will lead to insufficiency of pressure which is overcome
by passing tertiary air using spring loaded doors.
• This also helps the nozzle in the following ways
a) Engine cooling b) By passing the inlet air c) inlet air
recovery
 Ejector Nozzle
• Two stage Ejector Nozzle
• This ejector nozzle receives air
from the outside nacelle in
which the overall efficiency is
better than any other nozzle
• Mechanically Variable Nozzle
• This nozzle serves as a back
pressure control for the
engine and also acts as an
acceleration device. Here the
thermal energy is converted
into KE. This types of nozzle is
used which improves the
starting of engine
Ejector Nozzle
  
Interaction of nozzle flow with adjacent surfaces
Interaction of nozzle flow with adjacent
surfaces
 Interaction of nozzle flow with adjacent
surfaces
Real nozzles have a viscous boundary layer next to nozzle walls, where the gas
velocities are much lower than the free stream velocities in the inviscid flow
regions.
The flow velocity is zero immediately next to the walls and the boundary layer is
considered as being built up of successive annular shaped thin layers of
increasing velocity until the free stream velocity is reached.
The low velocity flow close to the wall is laminar and sub sonic but in the higher
velocity regions of the boundary layer the flow is supersonic and can become
turbulent.
The local temperature in part of the boundary layer can be substantially higher
than the free stream temperature because of the conversion of kinetic energy
into thermal energy as the local velocity is slowed down and as heat is created by
viscous friction. The layer right next to the wall is cooler because of heat transfer
to the wall.
The gaseous boundary layer has a profound effect on the overall heat transfer to
nozzle and chamber walls. It also has an effect on the performance for long
nozzles with high nozzle area ratios where a relatively high proportion of the
total mass flow ( 2 to 25%) can be in the lower velocity region of the boundary
 Thrust reverser
• Reversers
• The difficult problem of stopping an aircraft after landing has become
more pronounced with modem aircraft because of the large aircraft
weights, high speeds, and existing runways. Wheel brakes alone are
not an effective means to stop such an aircraft owing to brake pad
and tire thermal limitations. A reversible pitch propeller is used for
turboprops to reverse the thrust direction upon landing. Turbojet
and turbofans do not have such an option, however. To provide a
"brake" for such aircraft, a thrust reverser is usually used.
• For this, the turbine exhaust, fan air, or both are diverted at a
suitable angle in the reverse direction by the means of an inverted
cone, half-sphere, turning vanes, or other shape introduced in the
exhaust flow upon landing. Because the exhaust flow is turned by
almost 180 0 the linear momentum equation can be used to show
that the thrust is nearly reversed. The clamshell and cascade
reversers are two of the most common of these devices.
 clamshell type
• The clamshell is opened upon landing and the shell is
approximately one diameter downstream of the exhaust.
When the reverser is not in use, the shell is retracted and
stowed around the nozzle. Sometimes the retracted shell
forms a part of the rear section of the nozzle nacelle.
 Cascade-type reverser
It employs numerous vanes in the gas path to reverse the
gas flow. Reversers for turbofans are often of this type..
For the fan ("cold air") itself, only turning vanes are used,
as shown for the two positions.
For forward thrust, the vanes are out of the gas path;
however, for reverse thrust, they are moved into the flow
path.
For the primary flow (hot gas), a combination of clamshell
and cascade reversers are used.
For this geometry, the clamshell is directly downstream of
the turbine and, when activated, diverts the flow to the
fixed cascade of vanes.
Hydraulic pistons move both the movable vanes and
clamshell.
Cascade-type reverser
 Vectoring
• To gain more control of aircraft maneuverability in military fighter
applications, manufacturers have begun to develop thrust vectoring (thrust
direction control) as a part of the exhaust of the engine.
• Thus, instead of the thrust being along the engine centerline, the thrust
can be along another vector.
• Vectoring the thrust reduces response times. Such designs also allow for
more rapid take offs.
• Applications include two-directional vectoring and rnulti direction
vectoring.
• Thrust vectors can typically be varied up to 20° from the nominal direction.
• Although the design is somewhat more complicated, weight and
complexity of vectoring thrust nozzles are not much greater than for
nozzles with variable areas.
• All-directional vectoring nozzles use the iris variable area design as a basis
for the vectoring. The "flaps" are independently controlled and moved by
independent amounts, thus allowing the thrust direction to be changed.
 Nozzle Performance and Nozzle Losses
•  The gross thrust co efficient Cgtc = Factual / Fideal
Factual is actual gross thrust Fideal ideal gross thrust
• The thrust loss is due to a) Velocity vector angularity
b) reduction in velocity magnitude caused by friction in
the boundary layers c) Loss of mass flow due to leakage
through nozzle walls d) Due to flow non uniformities
• Discharge or Flow coefficient CD is the ratio of actual
mass flow m8 to ideal mass flow m8i
• CD = m8 / m8i = ρ8 c8 A8e / = ρ8 c8 A8 = A8e / A8
• A8e is area required to pass the total actual nozzle flow
• A8 is the nozzle physical throat area
 Velocity Co efficient
• Velocity Co efficient Cv is
the ratio of the actual
exit velocity c9 to the
ideal exit velocity c9i
• Cv = C9 / C9i represents
the effect of frictional
loss in the boundary
layer and is the function
of nozzle area ratio A8 /
A9 and half angle α
 Angularity Co efficient
• Angularity
  Co efficient CA represents the axial
friction of the nozzle momentum and is
proportional to the thrust loss due to non-axial
exit of the gas. For a differential element of
flow, this coefficient is the cosine of local exit
flow angle αj .This angle varies from zero at the
centre line to α at the outer wall.
• The Nozzle Angularity Co efficient CA is the
integral of angle αj across the nozzle
• αj dm
Angularity Co efficient