The Lithosphere and the

Hydrosphere

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Observatory Chapter 6: pages
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 Why study the lithosphere and
hydrosphere?
• The earth’s crust, freshwaters and oceans have given
humans the means to survive and prosper.
• Thanks to the resources provided by the lithosphere
and hydrosphere, we have built cities, farmed
landscapes, developed technologies, fuelled engines
and acquired our food.

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 The Lithosphere
• Observatory textbook pages 183-200

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 1. The Lithosphere
• The lithosphere is the
hard shell of the Earth,
consisting of the crust and
the topmost part of the
upper mantle.
• It is an average of 100km
thick.
• It contains the minerals,
rocks and soils that
humans have used for
building materials, metals
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and agriculture.
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 1.1 Minerals
• Minerals are solid inorganic substances
with clearly defined composition and
properties.
• In most minerals atoms are organized in
the form of identically shaped crystals.
• Each mineral has its own distinct chemical
composition.
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• 4000 different minerals exist on Earth.
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 Examples of Minerals
• Gold (Au) • Quartz (SiO2)
• Copper (Cu) • Copper sulfate
• Iron (Fe) (CuSO4)

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EST Gold Ore
Quartz
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 Classifying Minerals
Minerals are classified according to the
following 4 properties:

1. Colour
2. Transparency
3. Hardness
4. Streak
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 1. Colour
• Idiochromatic minerals have a
characteristic colour.
eg: azurite is blue

• Allochromatic minerals vary in colour.

eg: quartz
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 2. Transparency
Minerals are one of the following:
• Transparent (let light pass through)
• Translucent (let light through but blurred)
• Opaque (no light passes through)

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 3. Hardness
• Minerals are classified according to how
hard they are.
• Mohs scale assigns a value from 1 to 10
to indicate a mineral’s hardness.
– Talc is soft and scores a 1 on Mohs scale
– Quartz scores a 7
– Diamond scores a 10

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 4. Streak
• When a mineral is rubbed on a surface it
leaves a powder streak that is a
characteristic colour for that mineral.

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 Mining of Minerals

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 Mining of Minerals
• Minerals are extracted from rock ores
which are mined from the lithosphere.
• Quebec is known for large deposits of
gold, copper, zinc, and most recently
diamonds.
• Once the ore is extracted, the mineral is
separated from the rock by chemical and
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physical means.
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 1.2 Rocks
• Rocks are heterogenous solids
composed of many minerals.
• The physical and chemical properties of
rocks are not strictly defined.
• There are 3 types of rocks:
1. Igneous
2. Sedimentary
3. Metamorphic
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 1. Igneous Rocks
• Formed when magma (molten rock) cools
and solidifies
– eg: granite

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 2. Sedimentary Rocks
• Formed by the accumulation and
compaction of debris at the bottom of
lakes and oceans.

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Limestone is a sedimentary rock used in
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 3. Metamorphic Rocks
• Former igneous or sedimentary rocks that
have been transformed by heat or
pressure underground.
– eg: granite turns to gneiss
– eg: limestone turns to marble

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 1.3 Soils
• As rock erodes due to
rain, frost and wind, the
fragments of rock mix
with decomposing
plants and animals.
• Eventually, soil is
produced.
• It takes 200 years to
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 Soil Horizons
• As soils thicken they form distinct layers
called horizons.

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 Importance of Soils
• Soils absorb, filter and store water.
• Create a habitat for micro-organisms that
decompose organic matter.
• Create a habitat for a variety of insects
and a nutrient source for plants.
• Resist changes in pH through their
buffering capacity. Soils can neutralize
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 Environmental Damage to Soils

• The use of heavy machinery compacts the soil

which reduces the oxygen content and prevents
rain from penetrating; the rainwater runoff
carries away the nutrients needed for plant
growth.
• Accelerated crop rotation prevents soils from
regenerating nutrients naturally; as a result more
fertilizers have to be used.
• Excessive use of pesticides contaminate the
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soil and can reduce biodiversity by killing many
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beneficial microorganisms and insects.
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 1.4 Permafrost
• Soils that are permanently frozen
• 50% of Canada is covered in permafrost
• Can be up to 500m thick
• Found at high latitudes and altitudes
• Makes construction difficult
• If the permafrost melts, the ground
becomes unstable.
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 Permafrost

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 1.5 Energy Resources from the
Lithosphere
• Fossil Fuels
• Uranium
• Geothermal Energy

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 Fossil Fuels
• Coal, oil, natural gas
• 60% of the world’s energy
supply
• formed from the remains of
dead plants and animals (p.
196)
• When organisms died they
sank to the bottom of lakes and
oceans and were covered with
layers of sediment
• Over millions of years they
slowly turned to fossil fuels

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 Problems with Fossil Fuels
• When fossil fuels burn they release
thermal energy (heat) which can be
converted into mechanical or electrical
energy (eg: car engine, home heating).
• Fossil fuels will eventually run out within
the next few decades.
• Furthermore, burning fossil fuels
produces gases which are damaging to
the environment.
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 Gases released when burning
fossil fuels
• CO2 and CO  major
greenhouse gases
• SO2 and NOx  creates acid rain
• NOx  produces smog
• Note that the fossil fuel natural
gas or methane (CH4) is itself a
greenhouse gas 21 times more
powerful than CO2
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 Uranium
• Uranium is a radioactive
element found in the
lithosphere.
• When the nuclei of uranium
atoms split a huge amount of
energy is released (nuclear
fission).
• This nuclear energy can be
harnessed and converted into
electrical energy inside a
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nuclear power plant.
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 Advantages of Nuclear Energy
• < 1 kg of uranium can produce as much
electrical energy as 70 000 kg of coal.
• Fission of the uranium atoms does not
release greenhouse gases.

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 Disadvantages of Nuclear
Energy
• The energy emitted from
fission is accompanied by
radioactivity.
• Risk of an accident a constant
concern.
• Waste is produced which
remains radioactive for
hundreds of years.
• There is no method to
“neutralize” radioactivity so the
waste is stored underwater in
large pools or buried in old
mines.
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 Geothermal Energy
• Molten rock beneath the lithosphere contains
a huge amount of heat energy.
• To harness this geothermal energy a fluid is
circulated deep underground which heats up
and rises to the surface with a higher
temperature.
• This warm fluid can be used to heat buildings
(eg: Carleton University).
• Geothermal energy is renewable and non-
polluting (no greenhouse gas emissions).
• A few geothermal systems for heating
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expensive to construct.
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 Lithosphere Review
• Answer questions 1 to 19 on pages 214-
215
• Use your notes and refer to pages 183 to
200 in Observatory to guide you in your
responses

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