Understanding Culture, Society,

and Politics
Unit 1: An Introduction to
Anthropology, Sociology, and
Political Science
Chapter 1: The Scope of
Anthropology
Lesson 1: The Need for Studying Social,
Cultural, and Political Science
Learning Objectives
1. Discuss the nature, goals and perspectives
in/of anthropology, sociology and political
science.
2. Analyze the concept, aspects and changes
in/of culture and society.
3. Explain the importance of cultural relativism
in attaining cultural understanding.
Definition and Scope of
Anthropology
A. The Holistic Study of Humanity:
Anthropology
Anthropology
• Derived from Greek words “anthropos” and
“logos”, which intensively studies humans and
the respective cultures where they were born and
actively belong to.

• It is considered as the father or even the

grandfather of all social and behavioural sciences
like sociology, economics, and psychology, to name
a few.
• The discipline had its humble beginnings with early
European explorers and their accounts which
produced initial impressions about the native
peoples they encountered in their explorations.

• The shift to the New World or North America

raised the discipline to a higher level when some
European migrant scholars hailing from England
and Germany brought their expertise and
knowledge in primarily focusing on new
settlements and ethnic minorities including native
American Indian tribes.
Bronisław Malinowski 
• Widely recognized as the
founder of social
anthropology and often
considered one of the most
important 20th
century anthropologists.
• His contributions deal in large
part with the sexual mores and
taboos of society and whether
they are inherent or learned
behaviors.
Franz Boas
• The Father of American
Anthropology.
• Initially obtained a college degree in
physics.
• He strongly believed that the same
method and strategy could be applied
in measuring culture and human
behaviour while conducting research
among humans including the
uniqueness of their cultures.
• Best known for his contributions
on ‘cultural relativism’ and the re-
organization of American
Anthropology. He specifically
explored the cultural and linguistic
features of the native North American
societies.
Alfred Koeber and William Henry Morgan
• Two early American
anthropologists who became
prominent in the field since
their specialization included
the championing of
indigenous rights like
traditional culture
preservation and ancestral
domain of the American
Indian tribes they
intensively studied.
Historical Beginnings
• American anthropology gradually generated
social and cultural interests in the fields of
folklore and native sexual practices.
Ruth Benedict
• Became a specialist in Anthropology
and folklore and authored one of the
three famous books utilized in the
academic scene for references known
as “Pattern of Culture”.
• Benedict’s major contribution to ant
hropology, compares Zuñi, Dobu,
and Kwakiutl cultures in order to
demonstrate how small a portion of
the possible range of human
behaviour is incorporated into any
one culture; she argues that it is the
"personality," the particular complex
of traits and attitudes, of a culture
that defines the individuals within it
as successes, misfits, or outcasts.
Margaret Mead
• A colleague of Ruth Benedict.
• She was described in the
academic circle as
“controversial” for intensively
studying the sexual practices
among native populations.
Such views gave rise to a
relatively new liberal view on
sex and sexual practices in the
United States at a time when
most Americans were still
labeled as conventional and
conservative.
B. The Study of the Social World: Sociology
Sociology
• It is the study of society, social institutions, and
social relationships.
• Sociology is interested in describing and
explaining human behaviour, especially as it
occurs within a social context. It is less
interested in the individuals than in the group to
which they are a part.
Charles Wright Mills
• Calls it the “sociological
imagination” which he
defined as “the vivid
awareness of the relationship
between private experience
and the wider society.”
Peter Berger
• Explained the perspective of
sociology enables us to see
“general patterns in
particular events.” This
means finding general
patterns in particular events.
The first systematic study on
suicide provides a good
example.
Emile Durkheim
• Emile Durkheim’s pioneering study on suicide I
the 1800s revealed that there are categories of
people who are more likely to commit suicide. In
France and Central Europe, the suicide rate was
higher for the males, protestants, wealthy, and
the unmarried compared to the females,
Catholics, Jews, the poor, and the married.
• In general, the more socially integrated people
(formed by ties of affection and obligation) are
less likely to end their lives.
• Sociology also enables us to see the “strange” in
the familiar. This means detaching ourselves
from common explanations by taking a new look
at society.
• Human behaviour is not simply a matter of what
people decide to do; society shapes our thoughts
and deeds.
• For example: How does sociology look at cult
members who strongly believe in the magical
powers of their leader?
William Isaac Thomas
• An American sociologist, who
formulated a theorem in 1928
which states: “if people
define situations as real,
they are real in their
consequences.” Hence, if
cult members consider their
leader powerful, he can
perform magic.
History of Sociology as a Science
• Coincidentally, Sociology emerged with the two
of the most significant social and political
revolutions in the history. The French
Revolution of 1789 along with the Industrial
Revolution in England during the eighteenth
century, tremendously changed people’s lives.
• The Industrial Revolution was brought about
largely by the invention of the steam engine.
Many countryside folks were pushed into the
towns as their land was taken away by the
landlords to give-way to a factory based
economy. Likewise, the French Revolution
from the 177os to the 1780s, which was
influenced by new political ideas spreading in
from France and America, created a strong,
negative sentiments against the Monarchy. It
eventually resulted in a shift from monarchy to
democracy.
• On a positive note, Europe saw the beginning of
the Industrial Evolution, the growth of cities, and
the emergence of different political ideas which in
turn transformed social life. However, problems
such as massive unemployment, increasing crime
rate, widespread poverty etc. also emerged.

• Thinkers began to ponder about how to address

these difficult problems. The basic concern is how
to solve society’s ills.
• The following are the early thinkers and their
ideas about the topic.
August Comte He believes that society
operates according to
gravity and other laws of
• The person who invented sociology nature
in 1842, by bringing together the
Greek word “socius” or “companion”
and Latin word “logy” or “study”.
• He proposed that to understand
society, it should be analyzed as it
really was unlike the early
philosophers and theologians who
looked at society in its ideal state.
• He further favored Favoritism, an
approach in understanding the world
through science.
Karl Marx
• The forerunner of the Conflict Theory, one of the
most important sociological theories.
• He wrote The Communist Manifesto with Friedrich
Engels in 1847. This book focused on the misery of the
lower classes caused by the existing social order. He
reiterated that political revolution was vital in the
evolutionary process of society, the only means to
achieve improvement of social conditions.
• He felt that conflict, revolution, and the overthrow of
capitalism were inevitable.
• He predicted that the bourgeoisie
(middle class and owners of factories)
would be overthrown by the
proletariat (the factory workers)
because they can no longer contain
their frustration over the treatment
that the former inflict on them.
• Although his predictions did not
come true, sociologists still study his
insights regarding class conflict,
economic determinism, social
stratification, and social change.
Herbert Spencer
• Is associated with the birth of sociology in his
native England.
• He likened society to an organism with a life
and validity of its own. He first used the phrase
'survival of the fittest' when he proposed the
policy of non-interference in human affairs and
society, believing that doing something to help
the weak, poor, and needy would interfere with
the natural selection process.
• Hence, governments should
not rescue the needy because
this would disturb ongoing
natural processes. In this way,
society gets better as time
passes. His ideas justified the
enslavement of the Blacks.
However, his inhuman
philosophy later on met with
strong resistance, eventually
leading to its demise.
Emile Durkheim
• is the first French sociologist.
Durkheim put forward the idea that
individuals are more the products
rather than the creators of society;
the society itself is external to the
individual. In his book Suicide,
Durkheim proved that social forces
strongly impact on people's lives
and that a seemingly personal event
is not personal after all.
Max Weber
• Is the most important proponent of
interpretative sociology. Weber believed that a
“sympathetic understanding, verstehen of the
mind of others” was essential to understanding
the behavior of others.

• The qualitative, subjective methods as well as

objective, quantitative methods should be used
in the study of social actions.
• His works The Protestant
Ethics and the Spirit of
Capitalism, The Sociology
of Hinduism and
Buddhism and Theory of
Social and Economic
Organization among others
dwelt on the significance of
subjective meanings people
give to their interactions with
others. Weber asserted that
religion is very influential in
the actions and thoughts of
people.
The Development of Sociology in the Philippines

• In general, sociology in the Philippines

developed in three phases. In the first phase,
sociology was looked upon as social philosophy.
This orientation started with the inclusion of
sociology in college and university offerings and
taught as social philosophy. It was introduced by
Fr. Valentin Marin when he initiated a course
on criminology at the University of Santo Tomas.
There was little emphasis on the scientific nature
of sociology.
• The second phase was when sociology was
viewed as a problem or welfare-oriented
discipline. Sociology was seen as a field in which
the focus is on analyzing poverty, crime,
unemployment, and other problems that plague
society. This view was put toward by Serafin
Macaraig, the first Filipino to acquire a
doctorate in sociology and the first to write a
sociology textbook, in An Introduction to
Sociology published in 1938. Very little social
research was done.
• The third stage is when sociology started to take the
scientific orientation. This started with the increased
number of educational exchange program grantees,
establishment of social science research centers and
councils, growing frequency of conferences, and
publication of professional journals.
• Public and private agencies became increasingly
aware of the significance of social facts in the
decision making process. The data collected for the
government by pioneer Filipino sociologist Benicio
Catapusan on rural Philippines became the
benchmark for the distribution of economic aid to the
different regions.
• Presently, the mainstreaming of sociology is
evident as sociologists appear in mass media,
particularly in public affairs program. Prof.
Randy David, arguably the most prominent
Filipino sociologist, writes for the Philippine
Daily Inquirer. His column, Public Lives,
appears every Sunday.
C. The Study of Politics: Political Science
• In general, defining Politics depends on one’s
perspectives. But generally, Politics is associated
how power is gained and employed to develop
authority and influence on social affairs.
• It can also used to promulgate guiding rules to
govern the state.
• It is also a tactic for upholding collaboration
among members of a community whether from
civil or political organizations.

• Thus, Politics is the virtuosity of governance.

Concept of Politics
• Politics is allied with government which is
considered as the ultimate authority.

• It is the primary role of the government to rule the

society by stipulating and transmitting the basic
laws that will supervise the freedom of its people.

• Each form of government possess power to attain

order that should lead toward social justice.
1. Power
• The ability to influence others.
• Gives authority to lead.
2. Order
• Attained through obedience on the rules set by
leaders.
3. Justice
• It is felt in society with order.
• Therefore, the process being exercised by the
government in its implementation of its duty is
what we call politics.
Politics as an Art
• When we talk of art, we look at the style,
character, behavior, preference, and culture. In
considering these, politics is an art.

• Politics is a style depending on the character and

behavior of the leader. The constituents choose
their leader based on their preference. Leaders
use their charisma in influencing people.
Politics as a Science
• Science is commonly defined as the knowledge
derived from experiment and observation
systematically done. Policy-making and
government decisions are done through
research, investigation, analysis, validation,
planning, execution, and evaluation. Thus,
Politics is a science.
• Furthermore, in studying politics, we
systematically study the state and the
government known as political science. Political
science works with other fields of social sciences,
including sociology and anthropology, in
understanding how government performs and
how politics and governance work.
D. Convergence of Anthropology, Sociology, and Political
Science: A Focus on Society, Culture, and Politics

When politics is exercised in art and

science, politics is at its best practice.

- Dannug and Campanilla

Similarities
• Anthropology, sociology, and political science
share a common interest, particularly on the
subject matter of society of which we are a part
of.

• Societies have forms of governments and are

founded on cultural processes. Hence, culture,
society, and politics co-exist. One does not or
cannot exist without the others.
Differences
• The essential difference is that society is composed of
interacting people while culture consists of knowledge,
ideas, customs, traditions, folkways, mores, beliefs,
skills, institutions, organizations, and artifacts that
societies create.

• Culture plays a vital role in shaping and influencing

politics. As a shared set of traditions, belief systems,
and behaviors, culture is shaped by history, religion,
ethnic identity, language, and nationality. In all of
these, politics plays a vital role.
Lesson 2:
Theoretical Foundations of
Culture, Society, and Politics
A. What is Theory?
• A theory is a wide-ranging set of explanations of
an important feature of nature that is backed up
by facts. When we formulate a theory, we are
making predictions about a phenomenon that is
yet to happen.

• Instead of theory, some academicians use the

phrase “school of thought” or “paradigm”.
B. Theoretical Paradigms
• Scenario:
• Ethan, an engineering student, woke up late. He
rushed to the bathroom to take a quick shower,
then wore his uniform and ate his breakfast of rice,
eggs, and hotdog in a flash. Grabbing his backpack,
it took him five minutes to catch a jeepney. He
arrived just in time for his class to start.
Ethan knows that he has made it a habit that always
rush every morning for his classes but so far, he
has been lucky. “I am seldom late.”, he said.
• Question:
• Is there luck, or is there a system that actually
works making it possible for people to be able to
go about their lives?
• Trying to formulate explanations means you are
beginning to theorize.

• In sociology, a theory is a set of general

assumptions about the nature of society. It is a
set of fundamental assumptions about society
that guides sociological thinking and research
which allows us to analyze effectively any
dimension of society.
Macro VS. Micro View
• Societies may study human society by focusing on
the large social phenomena or “the big picture”,
such as social institutions and inequality to see
how it operates. This is the Macro View.

• They can also zero in on the immediate social

situation where people interact with one another
or looking at the situational patterns of social
interaction. This is the Micro View.
Three Major Theories of Sociology
1. Structural Functionalism/Functionalism
2. Structural Conflict/Conflict Theory
3. Symbolic Interactionism
1. Structural Functionalism
• This theory uses the macro level of analysis.
• The society is viewed as a complex system whose
parts function and work in harmony, bringing
stability in the process.

• Each part of the society (family, school,

economy, or state) performs specific and
important functions as a society as a whole. All
parts are interdependent.
• The family, as the basic unit of society, ensures
that there are children who will become the next
generation.
• The school prepares this next generation for
their careers.
• The religious groups help provide a moral
compass to them, and so on.
Robert Merton
• An American sociologist who differentiated two
kinds of function in a society.

• The Manifest Function and the Latent

Function.
Two Functions in the Society
A. Manifest Function
• It is the intended , recognized, and obvious
function.
• Ex. Education (Purpose is to of public
education is to increase the knowledge and
abilities of the citizenry to prepare them to
contribute in the workforce.)
B. Latent Function
• It is the unintended and unrecognized function.
• Ex. Education (to learn scientific methods,
because we know that this learning will have
effects on society, although we do not know if
beneficial or harmful, we know that they are the
result of education.)
Example of the Use of Manifest and Latent
Function
• Students go to college to earn a degree
(Manifest Function)

• However, it is also true that while in college, they

may meet their future wife or husband, and thus
the school may seem as the biggest marriage
market (Latent Function)
• Functionalism focuses on social order. If
something happens to disrupt the social order,
its parts will adjust in a way that produces new
stability.

• Social Concensus, a condition in which most

members of the society agrees on what would be
good for everybody and cooperate to achieve it,
holds the society together, thereby producing
social order.
Two Forms of Social Order According to
Emile Durkheim
1. Mechanical Solidarity
• A type of social cohesion that develops when
people do similar work.
• Most often, it exists in small scale traditional
societies.
2. Organic Solidarity
• A type of social cohesion that is formed in a
society whose members work in specialized jobs.
Because of this specialization, they have to
depend on each other for their needs.
Social Dysfunctions
• The undesirable effects of a social pattern on the
operation of society, may result but society has
the ability to adjust. After some time, society will
regain social order and stability.

• Ex. A political machine is dysfunctional when it

increases graft and corruption.
Weaknesses of Functionalism
1. It focuses only on the positive functions of
social events, ignoring the negative.

2. Because of the emphasis on social integration,

divisions created by race, gender, position,
among others are ignored.
2. Structural Conflict/Conflict Theory
• This originated largely from the works of Karl Marx
on class conflict between the bourgeoisie (the
owners of factories) and the proletariat (the factory
workers).

• As a macro theory, it is based on the assumption that

society is an arena of inequality and division resulting
to conflict. Social change is then desired. The present
system is purposefully imposed by the powerful on
the powerless, because they gain from it.
• Conflict Theory directs our attention to
inequalities that we see in the world. However, it
only highlights power struggles as the dominant
traits of societies.

• The conflict perspective ignores unity which is

brought about by shared values and
independence.
3. Symbolic Interactionism
• Using the Micro View, this theory argues that
society is continuously recreated when humans
interact.

• This theory is founded on the premise that we

respond based on the meanings that we attach to
the surrounding world; people assign meaning
to each other’s words and actions.
• One of the forerunners is Max Weber, a
German sociologist who said that verstehen
(sympathetic understanding) is the way to
understand people.

• Hence, its focus is on how people make sense of

the world, on how they experience and define
what they and others are doing, and how on how
they influence and are influenced by others.
• This theory looks at the interactions between
individuals, as interactions are symbolic. Given
this, it ignores the larger issues of national and
international order and change.

• It gives less emphasis on social structures and

institutions, but instead, highlights only the
uniqueness in reach social science.
Lesson 3: Methodology as
Aid
Doing Research in Anthropology,
Sociology, and Political Science
A. Anthropological Research
Focus on Ethnography as a Central Data Gathering
Tool in Anthropological Research

• Ethnography, which was pioneered by the anthropologist

Bronislaw Malinowki, comes from two Greek words, ethnos,
reresenting folks, peo- ple, and groups of people belonging to
specific communities and graphos, suggesting a detailed
writing or description of the aforementioned groups of
people. From the etymology of both words, ethnography is
defined as a qualitative method aimed to learn and
understand cultural phenomena reflecting the knowledge and
system of meanings guiding the life of a cultural group.
Major Objectives in Employing Ethnography as a
Data Gathering Tool in Anthropological Research

• Data collection is often done through participant

observation, informal interviews, storytelling,
and the like.
• This data gathering tool aims to describe the
nature of those who are studied (i.e., to describe
a people or group, an ethnos) through intensive,
detailed writing.
• Data collection methods are meant to capture
the "social meanings and ordinary activities of
people (informants) in "naturally occuring
settings that are commonly referred to as the
field.
• The goal is to collect data in such a way that the
researcher does not impose any his/her own bias
on the data.
Advantages of Participant Observation
• The researcher is in full control of the time for
conducting research.
• The researcher has plenty of time to process the
data collected from the respondents.
• The researcher has also plenty of opportunities
to take pictures of the community and engage
the respondents in storytelling.
Disadvantages of Participant Observation
• Participant observation is very time consuming
• It allows for personal bias to affect the data
collected from the respondents.
• The issue of being objective and detached may
be under great Scrutiny by the readers of the
ethnography produced by the researcher.
• A large tendency for the researcher to be
emotionally involved with the respondents and
the community under study.
B. Sociological Research
• Sociology is an exciting science because It Is about people.
their personal lives, community, and neighborhood they
belong to, and the world they live in. Personally, sociology
studies topics such as love and marriage. At the community
level, sociology offers explanations as to the role of the
neighborhood in delinquency. Globally, sociology presents
Sound explanation for population increase and/or decline,
migration, HIV/AIDS explosion, etc. Rigorous data
gathering and analysis of evidence about social life is a
hallmark of sociology. It uses the scientific method to search
for answers. In short, research is undertaken to arrive at
answers.
The Research Process
1. Selecting a topic. Begin by asking yourself
these questions in general, what do you want to
find out? What is it that you want to know what
are you interested in?
Some examples of topics are broken families,
crime, drug abuse, unemployment, racial
tension, and gender issues.
2. Determining the problem
Here, you have to determine more specifically
what you want to find out. Make sure that there
is really a problem present. Moreover, find out if
the research worth doing and if it can be really
done given your resources and time frame.
3. Reviewing the literature. As a researcher,
you should immerse yourself in the research
problem. Read everything related to your topic
to find out whether your problem has been
researched or if not, help you sharpen your
questions and formulate your hypothesis.
4. Formulating a hypothesis.
• A hypothesis predicts a relationship between
or among variables or factors. Your hypothesis is
based on what you have found out in your
literature review.

5. Choosing a Research Method

Kinds of Research Method
A. Survey is a research method in which subjects
respond to a series of items in a questionnaire or
an interview. Most sociologists prefer this method.
B. Case study is a method that involves intensive
description and analysis of a single individual,
organization, or event based on information
obtained from a variety of sources such as
interviews, documents, test results, and archival
data. This method highlights the unique, weird, or
extraordinary.
C. Documentary study is a method that uses any
written material that contains information about a
phenomenon a researcher wishes to study. If
possible, researcher should use primary documents
or eye- witness accounts written by people who
experienced the event. Also, acceptable are
secondary documents or reports done by peo- ple
who were not present on the scene but who received
the infor mation necessary to comple the document.

D. Correlational method is a method that involves

measuring two varlables and then determining the
degree of relationship that exists between them. 5.
E. Experimental design is a method that uses
treatment or conditions to establish causality or
to specify cause and effect.
6. Collecting data. Three different methods are
mostly done. Researchers may do interview, give
out questionnaire, or conduct observation. To be
more comprehensive and to do cross checking of
information, triangulation, or using all three
methods can be done.
• 7. Presenting and analyzing the results. As
a researcher, you have to make sure that your
findings are presented in a comprehensive and
clear manner. Tables and figures may be used to
reduce substantive data. However, it is not only
enough to present your results but also to
analyze them. You have to go further by
explaining what the data mean. For instance,.
you can compare and contrast your findings with
other studies you have included in your review of
related literature.
8. Formulating conclusions and
recommendations. Go back to your problems
and hypothesis. With your findings, ask what
inferences you can generate. What conclusions
can be arrived at then, think of
recommendations you can offer.
Recommendations are crucial because these
serve as areas tor further research. Hence,
research becomes iterative from this point
C. Approaches in Political Research
• Political research increases our knowledge on the
system of government and of political activities
and behavior. Political research deals more with
the political situations that may either
authenticate political affairs or tind solution to the
pressing issue on politics.
• The most prevalent methods used in political
research are survey. statistical analysis, and case
studies. But of course, the use of primary sources
is Vital to establish the legitimacy of the research.
1. Positivism - deals primarily with observation
and experience in a pollt cal sociely.

2. Behavioralism - seeks to understand human

behavior within the political institutions
Structural functionalism identities the political
structure that perform its function to maintain
political stability.
3. Political economy - facilitates the, study of
the relationship between government and
economics to come up with better public policy.

4. Institutionalism - gives emphasis on the role

of the institution in the political system.
• The approaches mentioned earlier can be used
depending on the problem that is being dealt
with. Either positivism or behavioralism can be
used in studying the description and comparison
of a political set up depending on what will be
considered, the observations and experiences of
the subject or its cause and effect.
• Structural-functionalism deals more on finding
the best political design that may be more
efficient in founding the strength of a political
setup. Poltical economy approach is the best
research approach in tormulating or
recommending better policy because it always
weighs the connection between the government
and economy. Institutionalism will be the most
effective research approach for establishing the
essence of the existence of an institution in
political setting.