Biological Principles and

Evolution
General Properties of Living Systems

1. Chemical uniqueness
2. Complexity and hierarchical organization
3. Reproduction
4. Possession of a genetic program
5. Metabolism
6. Development
7. Environmental interaction
8. Movement
General Properties of Living Systems

1. Chemical Uniqueness
 Macromolecules (nucleic acids, CHO, CHON,
lipids)
 Organic substances = carbon based
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Nucleic acid
Lipids
Organic substances = carbon

 Carbohydrates
 Photosynthesis
 Mono, Di, Polysaccharides
Simple sugars
Organic substances = carbon

 Proteins
 Peptide bonds
 Primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary
structures
 Lipids (triglycerides, steroids, fats)
Triglycerides and proteins
Protein structures
Organic substances = carbon

 Nucleic acids (AGCT/U – DNA and RNA)

General Properties of Living Systems

2. Complexity and hierarchical organization

 Atoms  ecosystem
 Cell – basic unit of life

3. Reproduction
 Living things can reproduce themselves
Sexual
Asexual
General Properties of Living Systems

4. Possession of a genetic program

 Genetic code (DNA and RNA)
 Heredity: transmission of traits from parent to
offspring
 Variation: production of differences among the
traits of different individuals
General Properties of Living Systems

5. Metabolism
 Digestion, acquisition of energy and synthesis of
molecules and structures
Anabolic (constructive)
Catabolic (destructive)
Aerobic and anaerobic
General Properties of Living Systems

6. Development
 Characteristic life cycle (embryology to death)
 Change in size and shape and differentiation of
structures
 Metamorphosis: transformation from one stage
to the next
Ex. larval to adult stage
General Properties of Living Systems

7. Environmental interaction
 Ecosystem (micro and macroscopic levels)
 Ecology: study of interaction of the organism with the
environment
 Irritability (organism’s ability to respond to external
stimuli)

8. Movement
 Precise and controlled movements
 Adaptive and purposeful
Requirements for life
 Organic = Carbon based molecules
 Water
 High specific heat (1 cal = 1 gm = 1 degree C)
 High heat of vaporization (requiring more than 500cal to
convert 1gram of liquid water to water vapor)
 Unique density behavior when frozen (maximum density at
4°C)
 High surface tension and low viscosity
 Universal solvent
 Component in chemical reactions (ex. hydrolysis and
condensation reactions)
Zoology as a science

 Obeys laws of thermodynamics

1. Law of conservation of energy
2. Entropy
 Characteristics of animals
1. Eukaryotes (membrane enclosed nuclei)
2. Depend or feed on other organisms for
survival/nutrition
Theories of Evolution

 Charles Darwin
 Galapagos island
 On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection (1859)
Theories of Evolution

1. Perpetual Change
2. Common descent
3. Multiplication of species
4. Gradualism
5. Natural selection
Theories of Evolution

1. Perpetual change
 Organisms undergo measurable changes
throughout time
 Evidence by fossils
 Vs creation theory?
Theories of Evolution

2. Common descent
 all forms of life descend from a common ancestor
 Phylogeny (tree of life – branching of species)
 Based on Homology – the same organ in different
organisms under every variety of form and
function (ex. Limb of human, bat, bird, turtle)
Theories of Evolution
Theories of Evolution

3. Multiplication of species
 Genetic variation present within a species,
especially variation that occurs between
geographically separated populations, provides the
material from which new species are produced.
 Species:
▪ Descent from a common lineage
▪ Reproductive compatibility and reproductive barriers
▪ Maintenance within species of genotypic and phenotypic
cohesion
Theories of Evolution

4. Gradualism
 The large differences in anatomical traits that
characterize disparate species originate through
the accumulation of many small incremental
changes over very long periods of time.
 Small + small + small = big
Theories of Evolution

5. Natural selection
 “survival of the fittest”
 Adaptation (propagation of the most favorable characteristics or
variants)
▪ Organisms have great potential fertility
▪ Natural populations normally remain constant in size
▪ Natural resources are limited
▪ A continuing struggle for existence
▪ Populations show variation among organisms
▪ Some variation is heritable
▪ Varying organisms show differential survival and reproduction favoring
advantageous traits
▪ Natural selection generates new adaptions and new species
Inheritance and Genetics

 Gregor Mendel
 Genetic code and inheritance through sexual
reproduction
 Chromosomes
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

 The hereditary process alone does not

produce evolutionary change
 Dominant and recessive genes (ex. Albinism)
 Calculate the frequency of a genotype in a
population:
▪ (p + q)2 = 1 = p2 + 2pq + q2
▪ p = allelic frequency of dominant gene
▪ q = allelic frequency of recessive gene = 1/20,000
Next meeting

 The cell
 Form and function

 Group reports
 3 groups of 4 members
 5 groups of 5 members