Principles of Taxonomy

Biol-3063

For Biology students 2021 GC

By
Bedilu Bekele
• Chapter-one
1. Taxonomy – the general concept
• The word taxonomy is derived from Greek taxis,
meaning ‘arrangement or division’, and nomos,
meaning ‘law’.
• Taxonomy can thus be understood as meaning
‘laws of arrangement and division’.
T1

T2

T3

T4
• 2. Biological concept
• Taxonomy is the area of biological sciences devoted
to the Describing, identification, Naming and
Classification of living things according to apparent
common characteristics.
• Taxonomy is the branch of biological systematics that is
engaged with four components:
I. Description- Description is the assignment of features or
attributes to a taxon. The features are called characters.
II. Identification referring specimens to previously named
taxa),
III. Nomenclature- naming of organisms (according to a set
of rules developed for the process),
IV. Classification (ordering taxa into hierarchy based on
perceived characters).
• Examples
• Lets a student discovered the following “object”

• Step-1 describe the object

– It is a living thing
– Pigment absent
– Non-microscopic
– Motile,
– Torpido/cyliderical shape
– With antenae/one pair/wing absent
– Segmented body
– Terrestrial
 Standard key
Step-2 identify its type

?
?

Step-3 name the organism

– Suggest the scientific ‘name’ for the organism
Step-4 classify- identify its taxonomic rank
Kingdomphylumclass- …
• Taxonomy possess its own words as of Every
languages do.
• The words are derived from Latin's or Greece or
at least Latinized words of any other languages.
• The words are names which are given to species,
genera or any other taxa
• Taxonomic words also have interpretation of the
names which is called taxonomic concept.
• Eg. Cannis familiaries (domestic animal that own
strong cannine teeth
• Here are some biological definitions of taxonomy
– Recognition, description and naming of taxa (species,
genera, families etc., also revision of older descriptions,
synonymisations, etc.)
– Comparison of taxa, including studies of relationship
(phylogeny)
– Study of (genetic) variation within species
– Construction of tools for identification (keys, DNA
barcodes).
– Identification of specimens (referring them to taxa,
using the tools).
– Inventories of taxa in specific areas or ecosystems
(using the tools for identification)
• Biological Taxonomy can be:
• Alpha Taxonomy (Descriptive taxonomy): The aspect of taxonomy is
concerned with the description and designation of species.
– Typically on the basis of morphological characters, it developed in 19th century.
– It started with work of Tournefort, de Jussieu and Linnaeus.
• Beta Taxonomy (Macrotaxonomy): The arrangement of species into
hierarchical system of higher categories or taxa.
– It is also termed as grammar of taxonomy
– It developed in 20th century.
• Gamma Taxonomy: Aspects of taxonomy concerned with intra-specific
population and with phylogenetic trends are included in gamma
taxonomy.
– An attempt is made to account for the origin and development of species.
– To determine the origin of a species, a taxonomist has to depend on
paleobotany which includes all taxa of extinct plant groups.
• Omega taxonomy: It is an ultimate perfect system, based upon all
available characters. Not achieved yet
 Omega Taxonomy
Ultimate, perfect classification system
Systematic Vs Taxonomy
• Taxonomy- the study of classification, including its
bases, principles, rules and procedures (Davis and
Heywood, 1963).
• Systematic- scientific study of the kinds and diversity
of organisms, and of any and all relationships
between them(Simpson 1961).
• Taxonomy mostly focus on at lower taxa
• Systematics engaged with higher taxa (Domain,
Kingdom, Phylum)
• Systematics is more broader and include taxonomy i.e
– Systematics = Taxonomy + phylogenetic evidences
• systematic aims at:
– reconstructing the entire chronicle of evolutionary
events, including:
• the formation of separate lineages
• evolutionary modifications in characteristics of the
organisms.
3. The objectives of taxonomy
• To provides a relational link between and amongst
biological phenomena
• To provides the framework, or classification, by which
other biologists communicate information about
organisms worldwide.
• To predicts properties of newly discovered or poorly
known organisms
• To understand how species evolve, and the forces that
promote and control this process
• To understand the spatial and temporal patterns of
phenotypic variation exhibited by populations and species
• To make decision for conservation and protection of
endangered species
 To summarize:
to organize species into group
To identify new species
To show relation ship b/n organisms
• Criteria of a good taxonomy
Stability (ICZN, ICBN etc.)has consistent rules
Uniformity (using a “dead language”) Latin is used as
the only language.
Traceability (when a taxonomic name changes leave a
documented “trail”)
Here are the scopes of taxonomy:
1. It works out a vivid picture of the existing organic
diversity of our earth and is the only science that
does so.
2. It reveals various interesting evolutionary
phenomena, making them avai­lable for casual study
by other branches of biology.
3. Almost entirely, it supplies information needed by
the various branches of biology.
4. It provides names for each kind of organism, so
that all concerned can know what they are talking
about and such infor­mation can be recorded,
stored and retrieved when needed.
6. It differentiates the various kinds of organisms and points
out their characteristics through descriptions, keys,
illustrations etc.
7. It provides classification, which are of great
heuristic(experimental) and explanatory values in most
branches of biology like evolutionary biochemistry,
immunology, ecology, genetics, ethology, historical geology
etc.
8. It is important in the study of economically or medically
important organisms.
9. It makes important conceptual contributions in population
thinking, thereby making it accessible to experimental
biologists. It thus contributes significantly to the
broadening of biology and to a better balance within
biological science as a whole.
• Definition of terms
• Taxonomy: is process identification, classification and naming of
living things according to apparent common characteristics.
• Systematics: deals with the natural relationships between taxa,
especially at the higher levels
• Classification: the act of systematically arranging objects (ideas) into
categories according to specific criteria.
• Taxon (plural taxa) - is a group of organisms that can be
differentiated from other groups of organisms, and that can be
described and named Or a specific rank in taxonomic hierarchy
• Review questions
1. Describe the general and biological concepts
of taxonomy.
2. List down three objectives of taxonomy
3. Mention the four types of biological taxonomy.
Explain how they differ from each other.
4. One criterion of taxonomy is its “Uniformity”
what does it mean?
5. Identify systematics from taxonomy
 Chapter-Two
The development of
taxonomy
Chapter-2 The development of taxonomy
2. 1 The origin of taxonomy
• The history of taxonomy dates back to the origin of
human language.
• By the time human started speak the desire for
identification, classification, naming began.
• Human exchange their experience, knowledge,
information to the other members of tribes, using
languages
• They identify plants as edible, medicinal, poisonous, ritual
and so on in unscientific ways. Such type taxonomy is
called folk taxonomy
• Normally ancient taxonomy is understood to be the
taxonomy of western world in Greece and Rome
• But the trace most oldest taxonomy goes back to
3000 BC years in the eastern world in China, then
middle east, Babylon, Persia and Egypt, (Ethiopia).
• Shen Nung, Emperor of China around 3000 BC
• He was a legendary emperor known as the Father of
Chinese medicine and is believed to have introduced
acupuncture.
• He wanted to educate his people in agriculture and
medicine and is said to have tasted hundreds of
herbs to test their medicinal value.
• The pharmacopoeia Divine Husbandman's Materia
Medica included 365 medicines derived from
minerals, plants, and animals.
• The taxonomic development can be viewed in
to three periods
– Pre Linnaean era
– Linnaean era
– Post Linnaean era
Pre Linnaean era(early taxonomy)
• Aristotle (384–322 BC)
• In Western scientific taxonomy the Greek philosopher
Aristotle was the first to classify all living things,
• some of his groups are still used today, like the
vertebrates and invertebrates,
• which he called animals with blood and without blood.
• He further divided the animals with blood into live-
bearing and egg-bearing, and formed groups within
the animals without blood that we recognize today,
such as insects, crustacea and testacea (molluscs).
 Animal

With blood Without blood

• Theophrastus (Father of Botany´ by Aristotle) 
• He made two botanical discourses
• Enquiry into Plants and The Causes of Plants
• He Classified plants into 4 major groups
• herbs,
• undershrubs,
• shrubs
• trees
• He wrote a classification of all known plants, De Historia
Plantarum and described approximately 480 different species
of plants
• Noted many differences in plants corolla types, ovary positions,
inflorescences, flowering and non-flowering plants, plant
tissues
• Adopted genera include: Narcissus, Crocus and Cornus
Crocus
Caius Plinius Secundus, /Pliny the Elder´ 
• Compile an extensive 37- volume encyclopedia entitled
• Historia naturalis (Natural History), where in 9 volumes
were devoted to medicinal plants
Pedanios Dioscorides
• He was Roman military surgeon
• Prepared a book Materia medica´  describes some 600
species of medicinal plants
• No drug was recognized genuine unless named in the book
• Contained less botany than the works of Theophrastus, but
its usefulness in medicine caused it to be considered the
definitive work of plant knowledge until the end of the
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages
• During the European Middle Ages, little progress was
made in original scientific study of plants. 
• Wars and decay of the Roman Empire caused the
destruction of much literature. 
• Manuscripts were lost at a faster rate than they could be
laboriously copied in the newly founded monasteries.
• Botanical knowledge was largely confined to the
previously known works of Theophrastus, Pliny and
Dioscorides.
Herbalists (15-16th century)

• During the 15th and 16th Centuries, a period known as the

Age of the Herbals, many new plants were described and
illustrated.
• Renaissance, revival of scientific spirit, invention
of printing-1440 botanical books produced fast.
• Herbals botanical books with descriptions and illustrations
made from woodblocks or metal plate engravings; used for
identifying medicinal plants
Herbalism is the study of plants in relation to their value to
man, particularly as Food and Medicines
• Herbalists gatherers or diggers of medicinal plants; forged an
important link in the evolution of botany and taxonomy as
well as in the development of pharmacology (the science of
drugs)
Herbalists
• German Herbalists
• Germany in the 16th century was a center
of botanical activity
• Outstanding contributions in the form of herbals
by Otto Brunfels (1464-1534), Jerome Bock
(1489-1554), Valerius Cordus (1515-1544), and
Leonhard Fuchs (1501-1566).
• They are sometimes called the German herbalists´
Herbalists
• Herbals of other countries or civilizations
– English, Dutch, Italian botanists
– China
– India
– Aztecs of Mexico
– Axum
• Botanical gardens cultivated plants for food,
ornamentals, medicine
The Italian Renaissance
• Luca Ghini inventor of herbarium
• Andrea Cesalpino followed philosophical rather than utilitarian approach(practical,
usefulness)
• classified about 1500 species of plants, mainly on the basis of habit, fruit and seed forms
• He recognised groups corresponding to:

Old name Modern name Example

Legumenosae Fabaceae Bean, pea,
Umbeliferae Apiaceae Carot,
Cruciferae Brassicaceae Brassica, cabbage
Boraginasae Boraginaceae Borage,
Compositae Asteraceae Sunflower, adey
•
• He classified plants in to two division
– Frist division based on habits
– Second division based on characters of the ovary/fruit, position, number of locules and number of
seeds
• Caspar Bauhin used synonymy of plant names
• Joseph Pitton de Tournefort  is Father of genus concept´ 
• Linnaean era (Carl Linnaeus (1707 –1778)
• Swedish botanist who introduced the now
accepted hierarchical classification of living
organisms and binomial nomenclature(trivial
name) of species (for this Linnaeus was
designated the lectotype of Homo sapiens [in
Stearn 1959: 4])
• First presented in Leiden in 1735, Systema
Naturae was based on Aristotle’s system of
progressive subdivision on groupings of
organisms. It is a work that classified all known
animals, plants and minerals
• Introduced the concepts of kingdoms, classes,
orders, genera, and species Published in
1753 , Species Plantarum is internationally
accepted as the beginning of modern botanical
nomenclature; it described over 7,300 species
• Linnaeus classification was based sexual
characters and popular because it was simple
Post Linnaean era
After the work of Linneaus, the scientific world
divided in to two, a lot of debates and critics rose
against him(L).
• Georges-Luise Leclerc de Buffon (1707–1788)
was a strong critic to Linnaeus work, and he
found it wrong to impose an artificial order on
the disorderly natural world.
• His theories, touched, speciation, infraspecific
variety and acquired inherited characters in
species, which opened up a pathway for an
evolutionary theory
• Antoine L de Jussieu (1686 - 1758) published
Genera Plantarum and classified plants into 15
classes.
• Augustin Pyrame de Candolle (1778 - 1841), a
French botanist published Theorie elementaire de
la botanique in 1813 and developed
morphological approach to classification.
• he could not complete his work and later his son
Alphonse de Candolle completed the work.
• Other scientists which oppose the Linnaeus were
• Michel Adanson (1727–1806), propose empirical
(experimental) approach of classification
• Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (1748–1836), Jean-
Baptiste de Lamarck (1744–1829)
• Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck (1744–
1829) launched an evolutionary
theory including inheritance of
acquired characters, named the
"Lamarckism".
• Organs of animals developed or
declined as a result of use and disuse
• Willis Hennig (1913–1976) founded
the era of cladistics
• Only similarities grouping species
(synapomorphies) should be used in
classification
• Taxa should include all descendants
from one single ancestor (the rule of
monophyly)
Darwin
• Charles Darwin (1809-1882) first proposed a
theory of evolution based on natural selection in
his treatise On the Origin of Species.
• The book has been referred to as “the book that
shook the world.”
• Darwin’s theory was based on natural selection
in which the best, or fittest, individuals survive
more often than those who are less fit.
• Species were not fixed and immutable, but that
they evolved in response to the molding
influence of the environment.
• Bentham and Hooker (1800 - 1884) published
Genera Plantarum (1862 - 1883) gave practical
use of classification ―ever since been as
inspiration to generations of the Kew Botanists‖.
1. Phylogenetic stage
• Phylogenetic classification was based on the ideas
of evolution. It started with Endlichler (1804-
1849) and Eichler (1837-1887).
– Engler and Prantl. (1887-1915) suggested semi-
phylogenetic system of classification.
 2. Recent stage
• The Classifications were based on distribution,
Ecology, Anatomy, Palynology Cytology and
Biochemistry apart from Morphology.
• Techniques of herbarium and museum
preparation and presentation were developed
and established.
3. Biosystematics stage
• The last fifty years have seen a qualitative
improvement in the area of taxonomic concept
and application by advancement of
Biosystematics.
– The ―New systematics is aimed at achieving the goal
of holotaxonomy.
• Information is gathered, analysed, and a meaningful
inference is drawn for understanding phylogeny.
Some important development
• Review questions
1. What are the major historical events that
contributed for the development of taxonomy?
2. What was the major contributions of carols
Linnaeus?
3. What do you understand about folk taxonomy?
How it differ from modern taxonomy?
4. Who invented herbarium
5. Who was the father of Cladistic?
6. What do we mean by utilitarian approach of
classification? How it differ from philosophical
taxonomy?