A PROJECT REPORT

ON
“RURAL AGRICULTURE WORK
EXPERIENCE”
Submitted to

H.N.B. GARHWAL (CENTRAL UNIVERSITY)

SRINAGAR, UTTARAKHAND

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE

SUBMITTED BY:
K . NARESH YADAV
BSc.Agriculture8th semester
BATCH: 2017 – 2021
Enrollment No:G172430416

Under the

supervision of

Supervisor Name:

Dr. Aparna Aggarwal

Co-supervisor Name:

Ms. Anita Trivedi

UTTARANCHAL (P.G) COLLEGE OF BIO-MEDICAL SCIENCES AND HOSPTIAL

1
 SEWLA KHURD,
TRANSPORT NAGAR ROAD, DEHRADUN -248001
UTTARAKHAND

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Firstly. I thank God for providing me good health so that I could

attend all my training and learn much better about my project which
I need to complete. I owe a great many thanks to many people who
helped and supported me during my project. It would not have been
possible without the kind support and help of many individuals and
organizations.

I am grateful to my supervisor Dr. Aparna Aggarwal and Co

supervisor Ms. Anita Trivedi for their guidance and supervision as
well as for providing the necessary information regarding the
project.

I also wish to express my heartful thanks to the staff of the Khadi

and Village Industries Commission, The UCBMS&H,
Department of Horticulture and Food Processing Uttarakhand,
for sparing their valuable time in helping me complete my report on
Rural Agriculture Work Experience.

My heartfelt thanks to my classmates for their help in developing

the report without them it would not have been completed
successfully.

The cooperation of all is very much appreciated.

K.NARESH YADAV
B.Sc. Agriculture (8thsemester)

3
 (Formerly Uttaranchal (PG) College of Technology & Bio-Medical Sciences)
(Affiliated to H.N.B Garhwal Central University)
Sewla Khurd, Transport Nagar Road, Dehradun (Uttarakhand)-248002
Ph: 0135-2642159, 3291871 Fax: 0135-2643686, website: www.ucbmsh.com,
email: info@ucbmsh.com
Ref. No.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. K. NARESH YADAV , S/O K. ANJANEYULU ,

student of B.Sc. Agriculture 8th semester, Enrolment No: G172430416,
Uttaranchal (p.g) college of Bio-medical sciences and hospital, Dehradun,
Uttarakhand, has completed his project/field work entitled as “RAWE”
programme on the following topics -

1. Food Processing &Preservation

2. Mushroom Cultivation
3. Apiculture (Bee Keeping)
4. Rural Survey and Socio-Economic Studies.

During the year 2020 under my guidance for partial fulfilment for his
requirement in Bachelor of Science in the field of Agriculture from HNB
Garhwal university (Uttarakhand).He took keen interest in all the stage of the
project work and has gained valuable knowledge on the various activities under
RAWE. I wish him a grand success and good luck in his future life.

DATE:
SUPERVISOR
Dr. Aparna
Aggarwal

Co-supervisor
Name:
Ms. Anita Trivedi

4
CERTIFICATE -1

5
CERTIFICATE-2

CERTIFICATE-3

6
CERTIFICATE-4

7
 RESEARCH AND WORK EXPERIENCE

INTRODUCTION

The most important area in which the development needs to accelerate is agriculture,
which is the backbone of a country’s economy. In order to spring about changes in the
knowledge, skill and attitude of the people engaged in farming, sustained effort is
necessary and thus could be achieved only through purposeful education. Rural
Agriculture Work Experience(R.A.W.E.) programme is for imparting quality,
practical productive oriented education for agriculture degree program. Effective work
experience training strategies incorporating rural agriculture experiment, learning
approaches providing opportunities for a student of the last year to engage in field work
activity to review and analyses activity and to draw some useful conclusion, decision
from analysis and apply the result in actual, practical and field situation.

OBJECTIVES OF RAWE PROGRAMME

I. To develop the understanding of community life and the different situation.

II. To familiarize with the socio-economic condition of farmer and their problems with
III.
reference to agricultural development.
To provide an opportunity to the students for practical training in crop production
through work experience.
IV. To develop skills among students using extension teaching methods for transfer of
technology.
V. The RAWE is a learner centered approach of exposing students by using principles of
‘learning by doing and seeing and believing to think and act on their own’.

8
 CONTENTS

S.no CONTENTS Page .no

1 FOOD PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION 09– 23

2 MUSHROOM CULTIVATION 24– 32

3 APICULTURE 33– 62

4 SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY, GRAMPANCHAYAT, 63– 67

HERBERTPUR

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UNIT-I FOOD PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION

INTRODUCTION

 PRINCIPLE OF PRESERVATION
 OBJECTIVES
 TRADITIONAL TECHNIQUES
 GENERAL METHOD OF FRUIT PRESERVATION
 METHOD OF FOOD PRESERVATION ARE ESSENTIALLY OF 2
TYPES: -
1) PHYSICAL METHODS
2) CHEMICAL METHOD
 DURING THE PROJECT ANALYSIS, THE WORK DONE WERE BASED
ON:
1) ORANGE SQUASH
2) JAM
3) JELLY
4) MIXED VEGETABLE PICKLE
5) TOMATO CHUTNEY
6) AONLA CANDY
7) MURABBA
INTRODUCTION

10
The green revolution and subsequent efforts through the application of science and technology for
increasing food production in India have brought self-reliance in food. The impetus given by the
Government, State Agriculture universities, States Department of Agriculture and other organization
through the evolution & introduction of numerous hybrid varieties of cereals, legumes, fruits and
vegetables and improved managements practices have resulted in increasing food production.

Fruits & vegetables, which are among the perishable commodities, are important ingredients in the
human dietaries. Due to their high nutritive value they make significant nutritional contribution to
human well-bring, they are the cheaper and better source of protective foods.

The perishable fruits and vegetables are available as seasonal surpluses during parts of the year in
different regions and wasted in large quantities due to absence of facilities and knowhow for proper
handling distribution, marketing and storage.

Though the country is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world. More than 25
percent of fruits and vegetables production is unfortunately wasted due to inadequate facilities for
processing. The food preservation & processing industry has now become a necessity. Fruits and
vegetable processing were first started in an organized manner in 1857, mainly to make pickles and
chutneys with a view to meeting the excess requirement of the people and canning of & vegetables
was started in 1927.

PRINCIPLE OF PRESERVATION

Principle of preservation is defined as the technique of extending storage life of produce without
deterioration in edible quality for its future use. It is based on minimizing damage by spoilage causing
agents. The broad principles involved in preservation of horticultural produce are as follows: -

1) Prevention or delay of microbial decomposition

2) Prevention or delay of self-decomposition of food
3) Prevention or minimization of damage by insect pests and diseases

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OBJECTIVE

The main objective of fruits and vegetable processing is to supply

wholesome safe nutrition and acceptable food to consumers
throughout the year. Fruit and vegetable processing projects also aim
to replace imported products like squashes, tomato sauces, pickles
etc. The fruit and vegetable processing activities have been setup or
have to the established in developing countries for one or other of
the following reason:

1. Diversification of the economy in order to reduce present

independence on one export commodity.
2. Reduce fruits & vegetable looms
3. Reduction of imports and meeting export demand.
4. Stimulate agricultural production by obtaining marketable
products
5. Generate both rural and urban employment
6. Develop new value-added products

TRADITIONAL TECHNIQUE

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New technique of food preservation became available to the home chef from the dawn
of agriculture until the industrial revolution.

i) Drying - Drying is one of the oldest techniques use to hamper the decomposition
of food products. Vegetables & fruits are naturally dried by the scene and wind,
but in the middle ages still house was built in areas that did not have enough.
ii) Refrigeration - Refrigeration preserve foods by slowing down and reproduction
of microorganism& the action of enzyme that cause food to rot.
iii) Freezing - Freezing is also one of the most commonly used processes both
commercially and domestically.
iv) Heating - Heating to temperatures which are sufficient to kill microorganism is a
method used with perpetual stews.

GENERAL METHOD OF FOOD PRESERVATION: -

These days ready to serve fruit products are becoming popular in the urban market due
to their nutritive value, refreshing qualities & changing life style of city dwellers.
People give preference to processed fruit products over synthetic because of their
artificial colour, flavor& nutrition, fruits can be preserved.

Some important factors: -

1) Selection
2) Sorting & washing
3) Extractions
4) Machines &equipment’s
5) Clarification & filtration of juice
6) Preparation
7) Adding additives
8) Exhausting

They are of two types:

1. Physical methods

2. Chemical method

1. Physical methods involve various process: -

13
a) Refrigeration
b) Drying & dehydration
c) Freezing
d) Irradiation
e) Pasteurization
f) Sterilization

2. Chemical method involves various process for preserve fruits: -

 Salt
 Sugar
 Vinegar
 Potassium bisulphite
 Sodium benzoate
 Fermentation
Scientific post-harvesthandling: -
1) Picking
2) Pre-cooling
3) Washing & cleaning
4) Sorting, grading, sizing
5) Waxing
6) Packing
7) Storage

1) Picking- injury cause by rough handling contributes to fast ripening, fungus

infection & rot detachment of stem at the time of harvest.

2)Precooking- Precooking is important for most fruits & vegetable because they may
deteriorate as much in one hour. In addition to removal of disease-causing
microorganisms, precooking reduces damage caused from vibration transmits. There
are many methods of precooking 1) cold air, 2) cold water, c) direct content with ice,
evaporation of water from the produce.

3)Working- Before, fresh, fruits & vegetables typically involve the removal of soil,
dust insect pest residents and chlorine in fresh water.

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4)Sorting & grading & sizing- sorting in one hand to remove the produce unsuitable
for market or storage due to damage by insect, diseases or mechanical injuring.

5)Waxing- A method used for fresh fruits & vegetable quality maintenance during
handling.

6)Packing- proper or scientific packing of fresh fruits reduces the wastage of

commodities by protecting them from mechanical damage, moisture loss & undesirable
physiological changes & during the case of storage. There are following benefits: -

a) Protection from mechanical damages & moisture loss

b) Proper handling
c) Reduced cost of handling transport & working
d) Improve sale.

ANALYSIS

DURING THE PROJECT ANALYSIS THE WORK DONE WERE

BASED ON:
a) Orange Squash
b) Mixed vegetable pickle
c) Jam
d) Jelly
e) Tomato chutney
f) Aonla candy
g) Murabba

ORANGE SQUASH
Ingredients
A. Water – 600 ml
B. Sugar – 1 kg
C. Citric Acid (powder)- 10 g
D. Potassium meta- bisulphate - few drops
Method / procedure:

1. Clean the orange.

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 2. Drain water
3. Extract the juice by juicer.
4. Strain the juice by muslin cloth.
5. Make sugar syrup.
6. Add sugar and citric acid, water and boil.
7. Fill sugar completely till it dissolves and stir continuously.
8. Strain the sugar and keep it till it completely cools
9. Mix the orange juice and sugar syrup.
10. Add potassium meta- bisulphate by dissolving little water.
11. Add food colour.
12. Strain it and fill in sterilized bottle and store in cool dry place.
Precaution: Do not mix orange juice with sugar when syrup is hot otherwise the
juice will become sour

JAM
Jam is a product made by boiling fruit pulp with sufficient sugar to a season ably which
consistency firm enough to hold the fruit tissues in position. Jam contains 0.5-0.6
percent acid and sugar should not be more than 40%.

Ingredients

13. Apple- 3 kg
14. Sugar -2 kg
15. Citric Acid- 2 teaspoon
16. Food Colour- Few Drops
17. Sodium benzoate- 5 ml

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 Fig. Boiling the fruits
TECHNOLOGICALFLOWSHEETFOR PROCESSING OF JAM:

a) Firm fruits.
b) Washing.
c) Peeling.
d) Pulping (remove seed and core).
e) Addition of sugar (add water if necessary).
f) Pressurize at five whistles (if pressure cooker is available).
g) Boiling (with continuous stirring).
h) Addition of citric acid.
i) Judging of end-point.
j) By further cooking up to 1050C or 68-70% TSS or by sheet test.
k) Cooling.
l) Waxing.
m) Filling hot into sterilized bottles.
n) Capping after cooling the jam.

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 o) Storage (at ambient temperature).

Fig.Preparation of Jam
Precaution: Keep stirring during the whole heating and cooling process.
Result: 2 kg 600 g of jam was obtained.

 Problems in production: -
(i) Crystallization: The final product should contain 30 to 50% invert sugar.
If the percentage is less than 30, cane sugar may crystallize out on storage.
(ii)
(iii) Sticky or gummy farm: Because of high percentage of total soluble solids,
jams tend to become gummy or sticky. This problem can be solved by
addition of pectin or citric acid.
(iv) Premature Setting: This is due to low total soluble solids and high pectin
content in the jam and can be prevented by adding more sugar.
(v) Surface graining & shrinkage: This is caused by evaporation of
moisture
during storage of jam.
(vi)
Microbial spoilage: This is due to deterioration of pharmaceutical products
by the contaminant microbe.

JELLY

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A Jelly is a semi-solid product prepared by boiling a clear strained solution of pectin
containing fruit extract, free from pulp, after the addition of sugar and acid. A perfect
jelly should be transparent, well set but not too stiff and should be of attractive colour
& keep its shape.

Ingredients

1. Guava- 2.5 kg
2. Sugar- 2 kg
3. Citric Acid- 10 g
4. Water-5 lit

TECHNOLOGICAL FLOW CHART FOR PROCESSING OF JELLY

1) Fruit (firm, not over-ripe)
2) Washing.
3) Cutting into thin slices.

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 4) Boiling with water (1 /2 time the weight of fruit for about 20-30 minutes).
1

5) Addition of citric acid during boiling (2 g per kg of fruits).

6) Straining of extract.
7) Pectin test (for addition of sugar).
8) Addition of sugar.
9) Boiling.
10) Judging of end-point (sheet/drop/temperature test).
11) Removal of scum or foam (one teaspoonful edible oil added for 45kg sugar)
12) Colour and remaining citric acid added.
13) Waxing (paraffin wax).
14) Filling hot into clean sterilized bottles.
15) Capping.
16) Storage at ambient temperature.
Precaution:
A)During the boiling process, fanning is necessary.
the surds as surds spoil the texture of the product.
B) Remove

Fig. Removing of surds.

MIXED VEGETABLE PICKLE

Ingredients

A. Cauliflower, Carrot, Green Chilly

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 B. Spices- Fenugreek seeds, Saunf, Turmeric powder, Garam Masala – 500 g,
Asafetida (Hing)
C. Salt- 80%
D. Oil- 800 ml+ 200 ml

PROCESSING FLOW CHART FOR MIXED VEGETABLE PICKLE

a) Clean, fresh vegetables

b) Washing
c) Cutting
d) Putting slices in vessel
e) Oil- 800 ml
f) Sprinkling salt
g) Mixing spices
h) Remaining oil- 200 ml
i) Store at ambient temperature

Fig. Mixed pickle

TOMATO CHUTNEY

Ingredients
A. Tomato -5kg
B. Sugar – 3.5 kg
C. Melon Seeds- 200 g, Cashew nut- 200 g, Raisins- 100 g Red Chilli Powder- 50g,
Garam Masala – 200 g
D. Ginger and Garlic Paste- 100 g

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 E. Salt to taste
F. Food Colour
G. Vinegar 10ml and sodium benzoate
Result:500kg 800 g

Fig. Tomato chutney.

Precaution: The chutney should not be sticky during the stirring process.
AONLA CANDY

INGREDIENTS:
A. Aonla candy -2kg
B. Sugar -2kg
C.Citric acid -20g
METHOD:
a) Preparation of
sugar syrup
(addition of
765g of sugar in
500ml of water)
b) Addition of
citric acid
c) Soaking the 22
fruit for 24hrs
d) Boiling of sugar syrup to Bx
e) Addition of remaining sugar
f) Soaking for 24hrs and increased the bx to 70 before 70 days
g) Aonla pieces and sugar (1:1.5)
h) Packed the Aonla preserve in glass jar
i) Dried in shade to get Aonla candy

Fig.Boiled Aonla Fig. Aonla mixed with sugar powder

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23 CARROTMURABBA

Ingredients
1. Carrot -2kg
2. Sugar -1 – 1.5kg
3. Water- 500ml
4. Citric acid - 5 – 7 gm
5. Color -15 gm
6. Essence - 6 – 8 ml
Preparation of carrot murabba:
a) Carrot fruit
b) Washing
c) Peeling/deseeding/decoring
d) Pulping
e) Addition of sugar
f) Citric acid and pectin
g) Cooking (TSS:68-700C)
h) Hot filling
i) Cooling
j) Lidding
k) Storage

Fig. Carrot mixed in sugar solution

24
UNIT-II: -MUSHROOM CULTIVATION

INTRODUCTION
 ORIGIN AND BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
 PRODUCTION AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
 MARKET ANALYSIS AND STRATEGY
 PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
 CROP MANAGEMENT
 POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT


 INTRODUCTION

Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus sp.) belonging to Class Basidiomycetes and Family

Agaricaceae is popularly known as ‘Dhingri’ in India and grows naturally in the
25 temperate and tropical forests on dead and decaying wooden logs or sometimes on
dying trunks of deciduous or coniferous woods. The fruit bodies of this mushroom are
distinctively shell or spatula shaped, with different shades of white, grey, yellow, pink
or light brown depending upon the species.It is one of the most suitable fungal
organisms for producing protein rich food from various agro-wastes or forest wastes
without composting.

ORIGIN

Cultivation of a species of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) was initiated on

experimental basis in Germany by Flack during the year 1917 on tree stumps and wood
logs. Growing technology was perfected in USA by Block, Tsao and Hua. Cultivation
of different varieties of oyster mushroom was initiated in India in the early sixties.
Commercial cultivation began in mid-seventies.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION

The oyster mushrooms have three distinct parts- a fleshy shell or spatula shaped cap
(pileus), a short or long lateral or central stalk called stipe and long ridges andfurrows
underneath the pileus called gills or lamellae. The gills stretch from the edge of the cap
down to the stalk and bear the spores. The spores are smooth, cylindrical and germinate
very easily on any kind of mycological media within 48-96 hrs. The mycelium of
Pleurotus is pure white.

PRODUCTION

Oyster mushrooms are the third largest cultivated mushroom in the world. China, the
world leader in Oyster production, contributes nearly 85% of the total world production
of about a million tones. The other countries producing oyster mushrooms include
Korea, Japan, Italy, Taiwan, Thailand and Philippines. The present production of this
crop in India is only around 1500 tones due to low domestic demand. Another inhibiting
factor is that export demand orders are large and can be met only if a linkage is
developed between producer, cooperatives and exporters.
 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

The economic importance of the mushroom lies primarily in its use as food for human
consumption. It is rich in Vitamin C and B complex and the protein content varies between 1.6 to

26 2.5 percent. It has most of the mineral salts required by the human body. The niacin content is about
ten times higher than any other vegetables.

The folic acid present in oyster mushrooms helps to cure anemia. It is suitable for people with
hyper-tension, obesity and diabetes due to its low sodium: potassium ratio, starch, fat and calorific
value. Alkaline ash and high fiber content make them suitable for consumption for those having
hyperacidity and constipation. A polycyclic aromatic compound pleurotin has been isolated from P.
griseus which possess antibiotic properties.

The spent straw can be re-cycled for growing oyster mushroom after supplementing with wheat or
rice bran @ 10-15 % and also for preparing compost of white button mushroom after suitable
supplementation with nitrogen rich horse or chicken manure (sun-dried before use). The spent straw
can be used as cattle feed and also for bio-gas production.

MARKET ANALYSIS AND STRATEGY

Demand and Supply Patterns

This mushroom is not as popular as white button mushroom in the domestic market. Cultivation of
this mushroom on commercial basis would be more profitable as compared to white button
mushroom as the capital costs are low.

The cultivation of this variety of mushroom is very simple and economical in rural areas where raw
materials and facilities required are easily available.

Marketing of fresh oyster mushroom does not pose any problem at present due to very low
production. However, as production increases linkage of producers with domestic markets and
export-oriented processing units will need to be developed to ensure remunerative prices to the
producers. Generally, export orders are too big to be met by a single grower and as such co-
operatives have to be encouraged to pool their produce for trading the crop in a dried powder form
in international markets.
 Import / Export Trends
27 About 11,797 tons of fresh mushrooms and 4,099 tons of preserved mushrooms were
exported to foreign countries viz. U.S.A., France, Ireland, U.A.E, Russia etc. During
the period of 2001-2002. The quantity of oyster mushroom exported is much lower than
that of button mushrooms which constitute the major share of exports.

PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY

Agro-climatic Requirements

Oyster mushroom can grow at moderate temperature ranging from 20 to 300 C and
humidity 55-70% for a period of 6 to 8 months in a year. It can also be cultivated in
summer months by providing the extra humidity required for its growth. In hilly
areasabove 900m (m.s.l.), the best growing season is during March/April to
September/October and in the lower regions from September/October to March/April.

Growing and Potential Belts

The major states in India producing this mushroom are Orissa, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal and most of the North Eastern hill
states.

Varieties Cultivated

Among all the cultivated mushrooms Pleurotus has maximum number of commercially
cultivated species suitable for round the year cultivation. All the varieties or species of
oyster mushroom are edible except P. olearius and P. nidiformis which are poisonous.
Species commercially cultivated all over the world during summer months includes P.
flabelltus, P. sajorcajo, P. sapidus, P.membranaceous, P.citrinopileatus, P.eous etc. and
those produced during winter are P.ostreatus, P.florida, P.cornucopiae, P.fossulatus,
P.eryngii etc.

Cultivation Technology

The procedure for oyster mushroom cultivation can be divided into following four
steps:
 (i) Preparation or procurement of spawn
28
(ii) Substrate preparation

(iii) Spawning of substrate

(iv) Crop management

Hanging Method

 Spawn Preparation

A pure culture of Pleurotus sp. is needed for inoculation on sterilized substrate. It takes
10-15 days for mycelial growth on cereal grains. It has been reported that jowar and
bajra grains are superior over wheat grains.

Spawn
  Substrate Preparation
29 Oyster mushroom can be cultivated on a large number of agro-wastes having cellulose
and lignin which helps in more enzyme production of cellulose that is correlated with
more yield. These include straw of paddy, wheat and finger millet, stalk and leaves of
maize, millets and cotton, used citronella leaf, sugarcane bagasse, saw dust, jute and
cotton waste, dehulled corncobs, pea nut shells, dried grasses, sunflower stalks, used
tea leaf waste, discarded waste paper and synthetic compost of button mushrooms etc.
It can also be cultivated by using industrial wastes like paper mill sludge, coffee by
products, tobacco waste, apple pomace etc.

The popular methods of substrate preparation are:

a. Steam Pasteurization;
b. Hot Water Treatment;
c. Sterile Technique (Till method);
d. Fermentation or Composting; and
e. Chemical Sterilization.

 Spawning of Substrate

Freshly prepared (20-30 days old) grain spawn is best for spawning. Old spawn (3-6
months) stored at room temperature (at20-300 C) forms a very thick mat- like structure
due to mycelium aggregation and sometimes young pinheads and fruit bodies start
developing in the spawn bottle itself. The spawning should be done in a pre-fumigated
room (48hrs with 2% formaldehyde).

 Crop Management

(A) Incubation

Spawned bags, trays or boxes are arranged in a dark cropping room on raised platforms
or shelves for mycelium colonization of the substrate. Although mycelium can grow
from 10 to 330 C, but the optimum temperature for spawn running lies between 220- 260
C.

(B) Fruiting
 When the mycelium has fully colonized the substrate, the fungus is ready for fruiting.
30 Contaminated bags with moulds may be discarded while bags with mycelial growth
may be left for few more days to complete the mycelial growth.

While various species require different temperature regimes all require high humidity
(70- 85%) during fruiting. Frequent spraying of water is required in the cropping room
depending upon atmospheric humidity. Fruit body produced under humid conditions
(85 -90%) is bigger with less dry matter while those developed at 65-70% relative
humidity are small with high dry matter.

CO2 concentration during cropping should be less than 600 ppm or 0.6%. Sufficient ventilation has

to be provided during fruiting.

Plant Protection Measures

The crop is suspect to attacks from flies (Sciarid, cecid) spring tails and mites. Timely
spraying with insect specific insecticides is needed.
The crop is prone to fungal diseases. Several competitor mould e.g. Aspergillus sp.,
Cladosporium sp. and Fusarium sp., Rhizopus sp. have been reported to occur in the
substrate used for cultivation. Spraying with Bavistin or Benomyl is a recommended.
The crop is also subject to diseases like yellow blotch, brown spot and bacterial rot,
control measures include:

I. Proper management of temperature and humidity during growing period.

II. Regular application of chlorinated water containing 100 – 150 ppm of freely
available chlorine at an interval of 3 – 5 days.
III. Application of oxytetracycline and streptocycline
.Harvesting and Yield
The right shape for picking can be judged by the shape and size of the fruit
body. The fruit bodies should be harvested before spore release, by twisting so
that the stubs are not left on the beds (straw). It is advisable to pick all the
mushrooms at one time from a cube and the next flush will appear at one time.
More than 500 kg of fresh mushrooms per ton of dry wheat or straw can be
obtained in case of crop produced in 45-60 day.

POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT

Storage
 (A) Short-term Storage
31 Fresh mushroomis packed in perforated polythene bags which are directly sent to the
local market situated nearby. Freshly harvested mushrooms can be stored at low
temperature (0-50 C) for 1-2 weeks without loss in quality in case it is to be sent to the
distant markets.

(B) Long-term Storage

Dried mushroom with 2-4% moisture can be stored for 3-4 months in sealed pouches
without any change in taste. The dried produce can be rehydrated in lukewarm water
(40-500 C) within 20-30 minutes, giving 80-90% of original weight.

Packing and Transportation

Fresh mushrooms are packed in perforated polythene bags. Poly pouches containing
crushed ice and overwrapped in paper, put in trays/baskets which are then covered with
thin polythene sheet with sufficient perforation for proper aeration. The pre-packed
pouches (250 or 500 g.) can be transported by roadways in trucks, buses.

Marketing

Domestic marketing does not pose a problem at present because only small quantities
are being traded. As production develops, marketing promotion measures will need to
be undertaken to bolster the demand. Export potential exists and needs to be taken
advantage of by organizing cooperatives of producers linked to commercial units for
processing fresh mushroom into dehydrated powder for export.
32

UNIT-Ⅲ

APICULTURE

INTRODUCTION

 HONEY FACTS
 HONEY HEALTH BENEFITS
 THE HONEYBEES
 CLASSIFICATION OF APIS MELLIFERA
 ORGANIZATION OF THE COLONY
 THE QUEEN
 DRONES
 WORKERS
 ORIGIN OF THE THREE TYPES OF BEE
 DIVISION OF LABOUR
 BEE-KEEPING
 WHY BEEKEEPING
 HONEY BEE PRODUCTS
 MARKETING OF BEE PRODUCTS
 THE CONSTRAINTS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF
MAJOR
BEEKEEPING
 CONCLUSION
33

INTRODUCTION
Beekeeping (or apiculture derived from Latin word: apis ‘‘bee’’) is the maintenance
of honey bee colonies, commonly in hives, by humans. A beekeeper (or apiarist) keeps
bees in order to collect their honey and other products that the hive produces (including
beeswax, propolis, pollen and royal jelly) as well as to pollinate crops or to produce
bees for other bee keepers. A location where bees are kept is called an apiary or ‘‘bee
yard.’’ Depictions of humans collecting honey from wild bee’s date to 15,000 years
ago; efforts to domesticate them are shown in Egyptian era around 4,500 years ago.
Simple hives and smoke were used and honey was stored in jars. It wasn’t until
the 18th century that European understanding of the colonies and biology of bees
allowed the construction of the moveable comb hive so that honey could be harvested
without destroying the entire colony. This topic, thus, can be studied under three
subheads:

 Honeybees
 Beekeeping
 Bee products
 Honey Facts

Nutrient Percentage
Water 17.20 %
Fructose 38.29 %
Glucose 31.28 %
Sucrose 1.31 %
Maltose 7.21 %
Carbohydrates 1.54 %
 Acid 0.57 %
34 Protein 0.26 %
Minerals 0.17 %
Enzymes, Vitamins etc 2.21 %

Honey is a supersaturated sugar solution with approximately 17.1 percent water.

Fructose is the predominant sugar at 38.5 percent, followed by glucose at 31 percent.
Disaccharides, trisaccharide’s and oligosaccharides are present in much smaller
quantities. Besides carbohydrates, honey contains small amounts of protein, (including
enzymes), vitamins and minerals.

Honey yields 64 calories per tablespoon, making it a more concentrated source of

energy than other common sweeteners. While the amino acid content is minor, the
broad spectrum of approximately 18 essential and nonessential amino acids present in
honey is unique and varies by floral source. Proline is the primary amino acid with
lysine being the second most prevalent. Other amino acids found in honey include
phenylalanine, tyrosine, glutamic and aspartic acids. The glutamic acid is a product of
the glucose oxidase reaction, 13 Proline and other amino acids are contributed by
pollens, nectar or bee themselves.
 Honey Health Benefits
35 Honey is a popular sweetener throughout the world. According to an Associated
Marketing survey conducted for the National Honey Board in 1997, almost 77 % of
U.S. households use honey along with other sweeteners and syrups and 45 % of them
consider honey a good value because it is “natural/good for you/better for you than
sugar.”

Overall, honey has a positive profile with nearly 62 % of users “especially liking” it
for its taste and flavor, 24 % because it is natural and 16 % because it is good for you.
From ancient times, honey was not only used as a natural sweetener but also as a healing
agent. Many health-promoting and curative properties attributed to it are the basis for
some traditional folk medicine treatments throughout the world today.

Honey was prescribed for a variety of uses including baldness, contraception and as a
wound treatment. Frequently honey was mixed with herbs, grains, and other botanicals.
Uses that have continued into modern folk medicine include treatment for coughs and
sore throats, lotus honey for eye diseases in India, infected leg ulcers in Ghana, ear
aches in Nigeria, topical treatment of measles in the eyes to prevent corneal scaring,
gastric ulcers and constipation.

The past two decades have brought a resurgence of interest in learning more about
antimicrobial and wound healing properties of honey. Studies conducted in various
parts of the world indicate the following:

I. Honey is a natural source of energy for the body. Sugars are the fundamental
unit of energy for our bodies. Honey is high in monosaccharide glucose and
fructose. These sugars are quickly absorbed, providing the body with boost of
energy. Doctors say that these sugars work best to enhance athletic performance
and prevent fatigue.
II. Dr. Susan Percival found the honey is rich in vitamins, amino acids, calcium,
iron, magnesium and zinc-, all of which are essentials to good health. Honey
contains several compounds that function as antioxidants. Antioxidants play a
large role in the prevention of cancer and heart disease.
III. Honey has anti-inflammatory effects. It is used to relieve sore throat pain.
 IV. Honey is a carbohydrate and will increase the level of tryptophan amino acid that is used in the
production of serotonin which is a neurotransmitter in the brain that will induce a sense of calm and
drowsiness. That is why some people drink a cup of water with a spoonful of honey before sleep.
36V. In recent research, it was demonstrated that in a survey of 100 people aged over 100 years old, over 80%
of them regularly consumed honey. Honey benefits human longevity due to its high-energy action, and the
presence of chemical elements, vitamins and enzymes that are important for the good operation of the
human body.

1. THEHONEYBEE:

A. History of the honeybees:

Honeybees have been used as a weapon in the World War 1 when infuriated swarms were released to hamper the
entry of forces in Belgium. The mysterious property of bee venom of relieving muscular pain and aches of
sciatica, rheumatism and arthritis has also been known for a long time.

While primitive methods of beekeeping have been practiced in almost every country from the times
immemorial, more rewarding scientific method came into being only after the discovery of Movable Frame Hive
in 1851 by Revd. L.L. Langstroth. In India, this method first came to Bengal in 1882 and then to the Punjab in
1883. Beekeeping was taken to the South by Rev. Newton in 1911. After the recommendations of the Royal
Commission on Agriculture to develop beekeeping as a cottage industry, (1928), the practice got a fillip in
Madras (1931), Punjab (1933) and U.P (1938). In India it is almost unknown despite the fact that it being a
tropical country can provide flowers of one or the other kind all-round the year making individual beekeeping
profitable. It is time that this sweet and rewarding pastime is popularized in our country too.

B. Kind of honeybees:

There are some 20,000 kinds of bees, all belonging to the insect order Hymenoptera. Of them, three families of
social bees are honey producing. They are Bombidae, Meliponidae and Apidae. The Bombidae are mainly
temperate which keep their broods and honey in separate waxen pots (not combs). The Meliponidae are
stingless bees,
 some of them making waxen pots, some others horizontal combs and just one,
37 Trigonastaudingeri of Africa making vertical combs. The Apidae, on the other hand, is
the main honey producing family. Its four species Apis dorsata, Apis indica, Apis
florea and Apis mellifera are most popular with beekeeping industry. Of them, the first
three are Indian and the last, European species that has been introduced into every
country of the world due to its good honey gathering quality. We shall briefly describe
these species in the following paragraphs: -

Apis dorsata:

Fig. Apis dorsata

Apis dorsata also called the rock bees and giant bees, these insects are the largest of all
the bees. They are found all over India from the hilly tracts (1200 m) to the plains. They
make the largest hives -6 ft long and 3 ft deep that hang from high rocks and tall trees,
several per tree, 6 dozen to 156 hive s have been counted on a single silk –cotton tree
in India. Perhaps they leave a scent that helps them identify the place. They make single
vertical comb, with very industrious produce of about 36 kg honey per colony per year
but unfortunately, they are also the most ferocious not sparing their victim even inside
the water. Their poison can kill a man.

Apis indica:

Apis indica or Indian bee is medium-sized bee and spread over to Pakistan, Srilanka,
South East Asia, Indonesia, Philippines, China and Japan. In India two varieties: the
 hill variety or Gandhiana, darker and larger and plain variety, Indica, smaller and
38 yellow variety, are recognized. The bees make parallel combs on trees, termitaries,
hollows of rocks and all kinds of cavities. Its honey yield is 3.6 to4.5 kg on the hills and
1.3 to 2.2 kg on the plains. It can be domesticated and, therefore, attempts have been
made to produce a hybrid between it and A. Dorsata, but it has failed. The negative
quality of these bees is that it is prone to swarming and absconding and is helpless
against the wax moth.

Fig. Apisindica.

Apis florea:

Apis florea or the little bee is the smallest of all the bees. It is found all over the plains,
never above 450 m. It makes a single vertical comb of the size of palm suspended from
branches of bushes, buildings, caves, chimneys, empty cases. It remains in the open and
do not stand captivity. It does not easily sting and so is mistaken for a stingless bee
though it possesses a sting. Its honey yield is poor, about ½ kg of honey.

Fig. Apis florea.

Apis mellifera:
 Apis mellifera or the European bee has originated in Italy and been introduced in all
39 countries of the world.

The behavior and looks of Apis mellifera are so similar to those of Apis indica that they
can be easily mistaken for the other. They make their nest in enclosed spaces in parallel
combs, endowed with all the good qualities of a hive. The bees– have a prolific queen,
swarm less, gentle tempered so domesticable, good honey gatherers and can guard their
nest against enemies except wasps. They make numerous colonies -500 being the
common number in USA, and the honey yield averages 45-181kg per colony per year
in the USA though 453 kg has been claimed in the same country and even 959 kg by
an individual beekeeper in Africa. They have adapted themselves well to modern
methods of movable frame hives and, therefore they are the darlings of beekeeping
industry worldwide.

Fig. Apis mellifera

Brief description of Apis mellifera

In India Apis mellifera are mostly cultivated in every area because of their nature,
behavior and the good quality of honey. They make their nest in enclosed spaces in
parallel combs. So, for this, we can easily make their colony and cultivate them
properly. They gather good amount of honey in their comb and the quality of honey is
good as compare to others. The honey yield is much better than the other bees. So, here
we discuss about Apis mellifera briefly:
Classification of Apis mellifera:

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Arthropoda
 Class Insecta
40 Order Hymenoptera

Family Apidae

Genus Apis
Species mellifera

Trinomial name
Apis mellifera capensis

Structure:

The bodies of bees are divided into head, thorax and abdomen, with three pairs of legs
and two pairs of wings on the thorax. The fore and hind wings on each side are linked
by hooks and grooves so that they move together in flight.

The mouth parts consist of a "tongue" or labium, which can be enclosed near the head
by the labial palps and maxillae. Nectar, from the nectarines of flowers, can be drawn
up the grooved surface of the labium, partly by capillary attraction and partly by the
pumping action of muscles in the head. When not in use, these elongated mouth parts
are folded back under the head, leaving the shorter, stouter mandibles free in front to
chew pollen, manipulate wax, attack intruders etc.

The ovipositor, through which the queen lays her eggs in the wax cell, is modified in
the workers to form a sting.

Organization of the colony:

There are four species of Apis, the honey-bee, one of which is Apis mellifera, the
Western honey-bee, which is the commonest hive-bee in this country. There are three
kinds of bee in a colony: in the summer, a few hundred drones or males, one egg-laying
female, or queen, and from 20 to 80 thousand sterile females or workers. The mature
queen is usually easily recognized by her large abdomen.
41

Fig. Bee Boxes

The Queen:

A queen bee may live from two to five years and, except for a short period at the end
of her life when one of her daughters takes over the colony, she is the only egg-laying
female. All members of the colony, whether drones or workers, are her offspring. She
spends all her time laying eggs, perhaps up to 1500 a day, each one being placed in a
wax cell made by the workers. The queen can feed herself but, in the hive, the nearest
workers turn towards her, lick her body and feed her by regurgitating a special secretion
of their salivary glands, called "royal jelly", on to their proboscis from which the queen
can absorb it.

The queen usually mates only once in her life (though second and third mating are
known to happen) and stores the sperms received from the drone in a sperm sac in her
abdomen. This store of sperms lasts her for the two or more years of egg-laying, a small
quantity being released with each fertilized egg laid.

When the store of sperms is used up, she may continue to lay eggs but they are all
unfertilized and will become drones. By this time one of her daughters will be
reared as a queen and ready to take over the egg-laying.
 Fig.Queen
42 Life history:

Each egg is laid in one of the hexagonal wax cells and hatches into a tiny, white, legless
larva. The larva feeds on substances deposited in the cell by the workers; it grows,
pupates in the cell, hatches as an adult bee and finally emerges from the cell into the
hive. The eggs hatch after three to four days and by ninth day are fully grown and ready
to pupate. The workers put a capping over the cells at this time. Ten or eleven days later
the capping is bitten away and the adult emerges. The times given above may vary with
changes of temperature and according to whether the bee is becoming a drone, worker
or queen.

Fig.Queen shell

Drones:
43

Fig. Drone.

The drones, who live for about four to five weeks and do not work inside the hive, are
fed by the workers or help themselves from the store of pollen and nectar in the combs.
Their function is to fertilize a new queen. In the autumn, or when conditions are poor,
they are turned out of the hive where, unable to find food for themselves, they soon die

Differing stages of development:

Stageof
development Queen Worker Drone

Egg 3 days 3 days 3 days

13 days: Successive moults occurwithin
Larva 8 days 10 days
this 8 to 13-day period
Cell Capped day 8 day 8 day 10
Pupa 4 days 8 days 8 days
Total 15 days 21 days 24 days
44 Period Work activity

Days 1-3 Cleaning cells and incubation

Day 3-6 Feeding older larvae

Day 6-10 Feeding younger larvae

Day 8-16 Receiving nectar and pollen from field bees

Day 12-18 Bee wax making and cell building

Day 14 onwards Entrance guards; nectar, pollen, water and

propolis foraging; robbing other hives

Workers:

The workers are female bees whose reproductive organs do not function. Among many
other tasks they collect food from outside the hive and store it, make the wax cells and
feed the developing eggs. Almost all the bees in a hive are female worker bees. At the
height of summer when activity in the hive is frantic and work goes on non-stop, the
life of a worker bee may be as short as 6 weeks; in late autumn, when no brood is being
raised and no nectar is being harvested, a young bee may live for 16 weeks, right
through the winter. During its life a worker bee performs different work functions in
the hive, largely dictated by the age of the bee.

Fig.Worker

Life of a Queen:
 When a new queen emerges, she is fed by the workers. She bites a hole in any other
45 occupied queen cells that she finds and some observers believe she stings the occupants.
In any event, the workers usually tear down the other queen cells that have been bitten
into and destroy the occupants.

For a few days the queen leaves the hive for short flights lasting, at first, only a minute
but gradually lengthening to about 15 minutes. During these flights she learns the
geography of the district around the hive. On one of these flights she is pursued by
drones, but not necessarily from her own hive; in fact, they do not follow her from the
hive but are already waiting outside. One of them catches the queen and mates with her,
depositing in her vagina sperms which eventually find their way into her sperm sac.
She now returns to the hive, and soon after begins to lay eggs.

From glands in her head, the queen produces a mixture of chemicals called pheromones.
When the workers ‘lick’ her body, the pheromones suppress their fertility. When, at the
end of her life, the queen ceases to produce these pheromones. Some workers start to
lay eggs which, being unfertilized, produce only drones. They do, however, start
building new queen cells.

Fig. Queen Box

Division of Labor:

The tasks undertaken by a worker bee depend partly on its age and partly on the
immediate needs of the colony. Generally speaking, the worker’s life follows the course
 described below, although the times given are very approximate and, in many cases,
46 may not apply.

After hatching, she is fed by other workers and spends a good deal of time standing still
on the comb. She does, however, clean out cells from which bees have recently hatched
by removing the cast larval cuticles. On the fourth day she feeds on honey from the
store cells and eats a good deal of pollen. Between the third and fifth day she feeds
older larvae by placing nectar, water and pollen in their cells.

The pollen that she eats is rich in protein and helps her salivary, brood food glands to
become active, so that by the fifth day they can secrete the brood food or royal jelly
which is fed to the younger larvae. After ten or twelve days these glands cease to
function effectively but wax glands on the underside of her abdomen begin to secrete
wax which the worker uses for comb-building and repair. By this time, she is also
beginning to leave the hive for short flights during which she learns the position of the
hive and the topography of the surroundings.

Between the twelfth and twenty-first days these reconnaissance flights continue; while
in the hive, the worker collects pollen and nectar from the incoming field bees and
stores it in the cells. She also processes the nectar and begins its conversion to honey,
and cleans the hive by removing the dead bees and detritus from its floor.

After three weeks of hive duties the worker becomes a forager and spends the daylight
hours collecting water, nectar, pollen and propolis (see below) and carrying it back to
the hive. This work she may continue for about three weeks before she dies.

The "schedule" given above is by no means rigid, and observers have recorded bees
doing several of the duties mentioned at the same time, as well as old bees performing
"nurse" duties, and young bees foraging. Some of the duties may be missed out
altogether. For example, only a few of the young foragers do duty as guard bees,
protecting the hive from invasion by robber bees.
47

Fig. Colony of Honeybees

Food:

The foraging workers collect nectar from the nectaries of flowers. The nectar is drawn
off from the nectaries by the long labium. It is pumped up and swallowed into the honey
sac, a region of the gut from which it can be regurgitated on reaching the hive.
Nectar is a watery sugar solution when collected, but it is processed by the house bees
to which it is passed. These workers repeatedly swallow it, mix it with enzymes and
regurgitate it. The enzyme action and the evaporation of water result finally in its
conversion to honey. Nectar contains very little protein, and the pollen collected by
the foragers makes up this deficiency.

Pollen is collected by combing off with the legs the grains which adhere to the bee's
body after it has visited a flower. The pollen collected on the head, and removed by the
front legs, is mixed with a little nectar and passed to the back legs which have combed
pollen from the abdomen. The pollen press, in the joint between the tibia and tarsus of
the hind legs, squeezes the pollen which is passed to it from the pollen comb of the
opposite hind leg. The pollen and nectar paste are thus pushed by the press into the
pollen basket on the tibia, where it is retained by the fringe of setae. All this may be
done while the bee hovers in the air or while hanging from the flower. The forager
returns to the hive with the two packs of pollen and pushes them off into an empty cell
or into one with some pollen already in it.

The younger house bees then break up the pollen masses and pack them down into the
cell. When the cell is full it may be covered with a little nectar and sealed over. Both
 pollen and honey sealed in the store cells are eaten by the bees in the winter months
48 when no other food is available. Water is collected and used to dilute the nectar with
which the larvae are fed, but there is no evidence of water being stored.

Propolis is a resinous substance that the bees collect from trees and sticky buds. They
use it for sealing small cracks and gaps in the hive.

Swarming:

When the size of the colony reaches a certain stage, usually in spring or summer when
the nectar flow is at its greatest, the queen and a great many workers, leave the hive in
a swarm. The swarm comes to rest in a great cluster on a tree branch or similar
situation. Scout bees, who may have left the hive some days before, seek out a suitable
situation for a new nest and return to the swarm and communicate this information,
whereupon the whole swarm moves off to the new site. In the old hive, one of the new
queens hatches out, mates, and takes over the colony that is left.

Senses and communication:

The senses of touch and smell, particularly through the antennae, are very important to
bees in finding sources of food, in identifying members of their own colony, and
sometimes in finding their way home. Their compound eyes are sensitive to certain
groups of colours though colour-blind to red. In the darkness of the hive they must
depend on touch and smell to carry out their activities. They find their way to and from
the hive by learning the landmarks in the vicinity and steering by the position of the
sun.

A bee which has found a rich source of food will return to the hive and execute a dance
on the surface of the comb. It takes the form of a figure eight with a straight section in
the middle. In addition, the dancer may make waggling movements of her body on the
straight section, which indicates distance. From time to time the dancer stops and,
regurgitating a little of the nectar she has collected from the flowers, she feeds the
attentive workers. The dance pattern, the taste of the nectar and sometimes the scent of
 the flowers on the dancer's body enable the workers to find the feeding ground from
49 which the dancer has just returned.

2. Beekeeping

Beekeeping is the actual commercial part of apiculture. Unfortunately, it is not very

popular in India as it is in western countries. Many people here even do not know it can
be as engaging and profitable as profession as poultry farming, horticulture and
pisciculture etc. The reasons are that it is firstly not eye –catching secondly, people are
not familiar with the technique of this trade. USA produces 2,42,000,00 pounds of
honey worth $242,00,000 each year and 44,76,000 pound of beeswax worth over
$4,000,000. Australia produces 40,50,00,000 pounds of honey (earning 9,00,000only
from the surplus) and 500,0000 pounds of beeswax. Even a small country like
Tanganyika in Africa produces honey and beeswax worth 750,000 and 250,000
respectively. It is observed that if the bee space is less than 3/16’’, the bees seal it with
propolis, and if larger than 3/16’’, they build a piece of new comb. This discovery made
it possible to make artificial frame hives that could be moved from one place to
another, if necessary.

Why Beekeeping?
Apiculture and Agriculture -
1. Introduction:
Beekeeping is a very fascinating occupation. It can be practiced equally by men,
women, grown up children and even by physically handicapped and old
persons. The investment required is low, and the economic returns are
comparatively very high. Beekeeping does not bring any pressure on agriculture
land. It produces honey, beeswax, pollen, propolis from the flowers which
otherwise dry up in nature and go waste. Beekeeping is a decentralized industry
and does not displace persons from their villages. If conditions are Favourable,
level of beekeeping can be increased to semi-commercial or commercial level.
 Though the honeybees are best known for the honey they produce, their
economic role in nature is to pollinate hundreds and thousands of flowering
plants and assure seed or fruit set. Honeybees thus play very important role in

50 cross pollinating various agricultural and horticultural crops and increase their
yield per unit area and improve their quality. Agricultural scientists in America
and Europe have estimated that value of the increased crop yields due to
honeybee pollination is several times more than the value of the honey and
beeswax the honeybees produce.
2. Honeybees and Forests:

Honeybees and forests have been associated with each other for several million years.
Honeybees are an integral part of forests and their ecology. A healthy bee fauna is an
indication of healthy forest and its natural balance. This is so because bees and
flowering plants have evolved together as one biological unit over past million years.
Hills and adjacent transitional belts and hills and surrounding agricultural belts having
mixture of forests and agriculture are of the unique biological wealth that could be
converted into economic wealth and can offer livelihood on a substantial basis. These
are the best areas for promotion of beekeeping industry.

Various development projects in the country, however, affected beekeeping industry

adversely due to deforestation, increasing land-use for agriculture, urbanization, tourism
development etc. All these factors reduce significantly the bee forage potential.

It is necessary to check this deterioration trend of the industry if this important income
resource to the rural and tribal population depending upon forests for their livelihood has to
be maintained. This is all the more necessary in view of the importance of honeybees as cross
pollinators of various agricultural and horticultural crops. Jamun, Soap nut, Shukokai, Amla,
Harad, Karanj, Neem, Drumstick, Eucalyptus are a few plant species to mention which have
duel utility. The plant species should be such selected that there is a staggered flowering and
flora is available to the bees almost round the year. This will support insect population,
resulting into vibrant, lively and dynamic nature of the forests.

3. Role of Honeybees in Agriculture and Horticulture:

Until mid-20th century, honeybees were equated with the production of honey and
beeswax. But since past 3-4 decades, utilizing honeybees to pollinate large number of
 agricultural and horticultural crops to increase per acre yield has become a routine
51 practice in many developed countries. Many commercial beekeepers in America prefer
to provide honeybee colonies on rental basis for pollination service rather than to take
honey production. Beekeepers in California earn about $150 per bee colony per month
as a rental for providing bee colonies for pollination service. According to Agricultural
Scientists in U.S.A., value of increased crop yields due to honeybee pollination is 10 to
15 times more than the value of honey and beeswax the honeybees produce.

4. Crops Benefited by Bee Pollination:

Experiments on effect of bee pollination on various crops were conducted by Central

Bee Research and Training Institute and various Agricultural Universities under All
India Coordinated Project on Honeybee Research and Training (ICAR). There is a good
data available on this subject from abroad also. A cross section of the cross fertile crops,
self-sterile crops with different degree of self-sterility and even self-fertile crops
benefited by bee pollination is summarized below.

Oilseed: White mustard, Rape, Toria, Sarso, Lahi, Safflower, Sunflower, Linseed,
Niger, Gingelly, etc.

Orchard Crops: Apple varieties, pears, plums, cherry, strawberry, raspberry, Litchi,
citrus varieties, grapes, cucumbers, squashes, melons, Almond, peach, guava,
gooseberry.

Legume seeds: Alfalfa, berseem and other clovers, vetches, broad beans, dwarf beans.

Vegetable seeds: radish, cabbage, turnip, carrot, onion, cauliflower, gourds.

5. Integration of Apiculture and Agriculture:

Horticulture: Nearly 70 percent of the cultivated crops all over the world are cross-
fertile and depend on insects like honeybees for pollination. Dwindling of population
of useful pollinating insects has become a global problem. This is due to pollution of
water, air and indiscriminate use of insecticides. Of all the pollinating insects,
honeybees are considered as the most efficient and reliable crop pollinators. Honeybees
and flowering plants are interdependent for their biology and life cycle. Thus,
 Apiculture and Agriculture are interdependent for mutual benefits and cannot develop
52 in isolation.

The enormous benefit that honeybees silently offer to Agricultural and Horticultural
crop productivity and to national economy goes unnoticed. The beekeeping industry
has rarely put itself forward as a Key Factor in agricultural production. We know role
of honeybees in pollinating large number of crops. But the public and what is more
painful is the planners are unaware of this cheap, but essential and eco-friendly input.
The input, which has quadruple benefits viz. 1) employment generation among rural
and tribal population, 2) providing supplementary income to marginal farmer, landless
labors etc. 3) Producing honey, beeswax from the nectar of the flowers which otherwise
dries up in nature and goes waste and finally the most important 4) increasing crop
productivity and crop production through bee-pollination. Ministry of Agriculture is
planning for the Second Green Revolution. It may not be an exaggeration to say that
second green revolution may not yield desired results without honeybees. As honeybees
and agricultural crops are interdependent for their life cycle, Apiculture and Agriculture
has to be integrated for mutual benefits.

6. Beekeeping A Multidisciplinary Subject:

In case of other domestic animals i.e. in dairy, poultry, piggery etc. the animals are
confined to shed and are fed with stored food as per their requirement. Contrary to this,
honeybees themselves go out in search of their food which is a live material that is
flowers. Thus, beekeeping is very peculiar industry in the sense that there is an
interaction of two living materials i.e. honeybees at one side and the flowering plants
on the other side. Beekeeping industry therefore involves different biological sciences
like Bee-botany, entomology, bee- behavior, bee- management, bee-pathology, bee-
genetics, bee-breeding and quality control and handling of bee-products. In addition to
this designing of beekeeping equipment (Apiculture engineering) and providing graded
training facilities in this non-traditional new industry is also essential. An integrated
approach and simultaneous attention to all these aspects of beekeeping is required to be
given for qualitative and quantitative development in the industry. An over-view of the
 above aspect may be necessary to understand the industry in depth and to formulate
53 comprehensive perspective plan for the development of the beekeeping industry.

3. HONEY BEE PRODUCTS

In India, honeybees are generally equated with honey production. Even beeswax
is considered as a by-product and much attention is not given for its collection
and processing, leave aside collection of other bee products namely, bee
collected pollen and propolis, royal jelly and bee venom.
In the present global market, quality and competitive prices alone will govern
the market and the future of the industry. A beekeeper will therefore have to tap
not only all the above bee products but also provide his colonies on rental basis
for pollination service and augment his income. Such strategy alone can make
the beekeeper self-reliant and beekeeping a viable industry in the competitive
market.

It may however be remembered that all the bee products are used either as food
or in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. For this reason, hygienic
collection, handling, processing, storage etc. and maintaining National and
International purity standards are of prime importance. India is endowed with
presence of three species of the genera Apis, namely, A. dorsata, A. cerana, and
A. florea and stingless honeybees of Trigona /Mellipona sp. Successful
introduction of European honeybees Apis mellifera in India, has given a new
dimension to the beekeeping industry.

Though large quantities of honey and beeswax are collected in India and
methods of their collection, processing etc. have been fairly standardized,
methods of production of other bee products are yet to be standardized for
commercial use. Standardization of methods of collection and development of
market for these products and for their value-added products will have to be
simultaneously looked into.
1. Honey:
 In a single honeybee
54

colony, there are about ten thousand worker honeybees. Being social bees,
there is a highly evolved division of labor among these bees. Few scout bees,
survey the area within a radius of one Km. and collect the information about
the direction, distance and quality of food – nectar and pollen, available. By
performing some dances, this information is passed on to other honeybees.
The honeybees then take a straight flight and land on the crop for collecting
nectar and pollen. The honeybees continue to visit this particular crop until
its
flowering withers away. This peculiar behavior or the floral fidelity of
honeybees makes it possible to get honeys from predominantly a single plant
source and thus we get unfloral honeys like, Jamun honey, Mustard honey,
Litchi honey etc. When density of a single plant source is sparse in a
particular area, then honeybees switch over to another plant species for
gathering nectar. Under these circumstances we get multi-floral honey.
Each floral honey has a peculiar colour, taste and flavor specific to the plant
source. Except for these sensory tests, unfloral and multiflora honeys have the
same gross chemical composition.
2. Bees Wax:

In the process of evolution, honeybees appeared on the earth millions of years before
man made his appearance on this planet. As honey is said to be the first sweet substance
known to man, beeswax is said to be the first natural plastic known to man. The
 Egyptians in 4200 B.C. found numerous uses of beeswax. They used to preserve
55 mummies, to seal the coffins etc. Ship building industry was also a great consumer of
Beeswax. Beeswax was used for waterproofing the bottoms of the ships. The most
important property of beeswax is its stable composition. Thousand-year-old beeswax
cakes were recovered from the sunken ships. The composition and properties of these
wax cakes were unchanged over centuries.

Fig. Artificial wax chamber

3. Bee Collected Pollen:

Honeybees collect nectar, convert it into honey and store it as their carbohydrate
food. Similarly, a single bee colony collects 25 to 40 Kg of pollen grains every
year as a source of proteins, vitamins, minerals, oils and fats etc. Pollen
grains
contains all types of nutrients required for the growth young once in a bee
colony and hence considered by many as a ‘Complete food’. Pollen tablet are
prepared as “food supplement” by some Pharmaceutical Firms.
56

Fig. Bee collected pollen

4. Propolis:
Honeybees collect gummy material secreted by leaf or flower buds of some
plants such as poplars, conifers. This substance is known as propolis. Propolis
is collected by European honeybees and not by Indian honeybees. Honeybees
use this resinous material to fill up cracks, crevices, and holes in the hive. The
hive entrance is reduced using propolis to protect the colony from intruders like
wasps, lizards etc. Propolis has anti-bacterial and anti-fungal properties and it
also acts as a repellent for many bee enemies. Propolis is used in some
pharmaceutical preparations.

Fig. propolis

5. Royal Jelly:
 Queen bee lays two types of eggs, unfertilized and fertilized. From unfertilized
57 eggs drones or male bees develop. From fertilized eggs, either worker bee
(sterile female) or queen bee develops. After hatching of the fertilized egg, for
the first three days uniform and same food is given to all the larvae. After three
days, larvae to be developed into worker bees are given courser type of food
and the larvae to be developed into queen bee are given abundant quantity of
special food. This food brings miraculous changes in the body of the queen bee
and her life.
The egg laying capacity and the extended life span is attributed to the special
food secreted from the hypopharyngeal glands of the young worker bees. This
food is more popularly known as “Royal jelly” or “Miracle food” Royal jelly is
used in many pharmaceutical preparations.

Fig. Royal jelly

6. Bee Venom:
Most of the people know honeybees for the honey they produce so also, they
know that honeybees are armed with sting which they use for the defense of the
colony. Bee venom is now known to have some medicinal properties. Methods
have been standardized to collect bee-venom.
7. Apitherapy:
From ancient times, man has exploited honeybees throughout the world,
first for their sweet honey and then for their protein rich brood and pollen. The
use of beeswax came later and followed by other bee products propolis, royal
jelly and venom.
 In early 20th century, cane sugar was produced commercially. Technology of
58 commercial production of glucose was also developed. Since recently, fructose
rich syrup from corn, using enzymatic process, is being manufactured.
In order to keep pace with changing times, beekeepers and their organizations
started looking for other avenues to augment their income. As a result,
traditional old therapy of using other bee products was revived and from 1960
onwards methods were developed for commercial collection of pollen, propolis
and venom and production of royal jelly from bee colonies. Followed by these
achievements, extensive research was done on all the six bee products for their
food and medicinal values and came into existence a new branch of medicine
‘Apitherapy’ i.e. use of bee products for treating various ailments.

MARKETING OF BEE PRODUCTS:

The Beekeeping Directorate concentrated its efforts on extension, research and
training aspects alone. Marketing of honey was looked after by the Beekeepers’
cooperatives themselves. The Beekeeping Directorate undertook marketing
activity as a departmental activity since 1971 following a glut in honey market.
It is estimated that wild honey contributes to nearly 70 per cent of the total
Indian honey production.

Fig. Honey Extractor.

Honey Production in India:

 In India we have two indigenous species of honeybees producing large
59 quantities of honey. These are Apis dorsata or the wild honeybees and Apis
cerana the domesticable hive bee. In addition to these Indian honeybees,
European honeybees Apis mellifera have been introduced in India.
a) Apis dorsata Honey:
This honey is traditionally collected from the wild honey bee colonies Apis
dorsata, by smoking away the bees and squeezing out their combs for honey.
Because of the crude method of collection of honey, this honey contains lot of
foreign matter, is turbid in appearance and invariably contains large percentage
of moisture. About 2.5 to 3 crore kilograms of honey as annually collected from
these wild honeybee colonies.

b) Apis cerana Honey:

Colonies of this domesticable hive bee Apis cerana are maintained in modern
wooden hives and honey is extracted by scientific methods without killing the
honeybees or destroying their honey combs. Honey extracted from these bee
colonies is therefore clean, transparent and free from extraneous material. About
80 to 90 lakh Kg of honey is annually produced from these bees.

c) Apis mellifera Honey:

The Italian race of Apis mellifera honeybees was introduced in Punjab about three
decades back. These honeybees are now spreading in Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
West Bengal and Assam. There are now about 1 lakh European honeybee colonies in
northern states producing nearly 10 lakh Kg of honey annually. The rate, at which these
honeybees are spreading in the agricultural plains of north India, shows the new trend
of development of beekeeping in India.
Honey Market

All tropical honeys including Indian honeys contain high moisture content (20
to 25 %), low enzymatic value and high Hydroxy-methyl-furfural (HMF)
content, compared to European honeys. Honeys with higher moisture content
are liable to ferment quickly.
(a) Internal market:

Compared to traditional wild honey, production of apiary honey is less and

price-wise it is more costly than wild honey. Apiary honey has therefore market
 in big cities and in pharmaceutical industries, while wild honey finds market in
60 small cities, villages, Ayurvedic preparations etc.
(b) International market:

During 19th century hundreds of European honeybee colonies were migrated to

North America, South America, Australia, and New Zealand etc. These
European honeybees are well established in these countries and are being
harnessed for production of honey, beeswax, royal jelly, pollen, propolis and
bee-venom. As against this, in India, we have 8 lakh bee colonies producing
about 8000 tons of apiary honey. FAO, WHO and European Common Market
have laid down purity specifications for honey based on the composition of Apis
mellifera honeys

THE MAJOR CONSTRAINTS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF

BEEKEEPING IN INDIA ARE AS FOLLOWS
 Using the Correct Species for Beekeeping
 Availability of Genetically Superior Queens for Increased Honey Production
 Lack of Technical Knowledge for Efficient Management of Colonies for High
Honey Yields
 Lack of Infrastructure at the Grass Roots and National Level for Beekeeping
 Poor Quality Control for the Production of Honey
 Emphasis on Production of Honey Instead of other Bee Products
 CONCLUSION
 From many viewpoints viz. employment generation among rural youths and
tribal population, producing valuable products like, honey, beeswax, pollen,
propolis, venom and royal jelly and above all increasing the yields
qualitatively and quantitatively, of various agricultural and horticultural crops,
beekeeping has to be developed on priority basis. Apiculture and Agriculture
are interdependent and cannot develop in isolation. Integration between
Apiculture and Agriculture is therefore essential for mutual benefits and
development..Because of the nature of beekeeping industry,
peculiar
simultaneous attention is required to be given to different disciplines of
biological sciences. For implementing extension, research, training and
marketing programmers, KVIC, State K.V.I. Boards, Beekeepers’
 Cooperatives, Departments of Forest, Agriculture, Horticulture and Agriculture
61 Universities and NGOs should work in close co-ordination. Such integrated
approach alone will result into rapid development of this important agro- and
forest-based industry. Different Committees may have to be formed, drawing
representatives from above mentioned Departments for planning, preparation of
Road Map, monitoringand reviewing etc.


UNIT-IV
SOCIAL ECONOMIC SURVEY GRAM PANCHAYAT ,
HERBERTPUR

 INTRODUCTION
 OBJECTIVES
 AREA OF STUDY
 PARAMETERS OF STUDY
 SURVEY REPORT OF HERBERTPUR VILLAGE
 COMMON FACILITY IN THE VILLAGE

 SURVEY DETAILS
 CONCLUSION
62
INTRODUCTION

Socio economic study is the study of economy and social condition of an area. In many
cases socio economist focuses on the social impact of some sort of economic changes.
It is necessary to conduct socio economic studies and surveys in rural areas as because
maximum population in India resides in rural areas and their only source of income is
agriculture and small-scale industries. Surveys are conducted by socio economist in
order to asses/evaluate and learn about the social, cultural, economic and political
conditions of the study site. Survey’s make use of questionnaire’s makes the data
collection and analysis easy for survey’s after analysis and identifying the main area of
concern, a set of guidelines are developed for establishing viable communities.

Objective:

1. To conduct socioeconomic surveys, asses the prevailing socio-economic

conditions and to identify the main area of concern.
2. To analyses the impact of prevailing socio-economic conditions on the
socio-economic structures of study lines.
3. To bring about socio-economic development, usually in terms of
improvements in metrics such as GDP, life expectancy, literacy levels
of employment.

Area of study:

The present study was conducted at Herbertpur Village, Dehradun- 248140

(Uttarakhand).
 A total of 5 households were interviewed. Detailed survey was conducted to
63 generate basic information on various aspects.

Parameters of study:

a) Social condition and social system

1. Age wise population distribution.
2. Literacy and educational status.
3. Family system.
4. Marriage system.

b) Economic condition
1. Land holding.
2. Mode of cultivation.
3. State of mechanization.
4. Status of source of irrigation.
5. Source of income and average income per month.

Survey report of Herbertpur village:

 Name of investigator: Lunavath Srikanth

 Name of the village: Herbertpur
 Block:Doiwala
 District:Dehradun
 Distance from:
 Block Headquarters:Dehradun(17Km)
 Nearest Market:clement town (3.6km)
 Nearest railway station:Harrawala railway station
(8.6km)
 Nearest bus station:Clement town bus station.(3.6km)
 S.No FACILITY AVAILABILITY (Yes/No) REMARKS
64 A Primary health clinic Yes General
B Veterinary Hospital Yes Monthly twice
C Water Supply Yes General
D Seed Store No Required

E School Primary, High school General+ Mid

and Standard Day Meal
F Tube well For Yes General
Irrigation
G Post office Yes Available With
Low Facilities
H Panchayat Bhawan Yes General With
Good Facilities
I Others College U.P.E.S.

 Common facility in the village:

 Road facilities

 Water facility

 Electricity

 Gram panchayath

 Transport facility
 PHOTOGRAPHS OF SURVEY
65

How to sustain Agriculture/Farming System:

 Some Suggestions:

 Proper educational seminars should be put by the government in order to

educate the farmer.

 Diseases in crops and livestock should be completely eradicated with better

Cost of farm implements should be at a price where farmers can afford
easily.

Bank loans to the farmer

66

 Subsidies on varied Agricultural inputs like seed, fertilizers, etc.

CONCLUSION

From the survey and analysis of the information collected from the village, it is clear
that the economic & living condition of the people of Herbertpur is average, but the
attitude of the people towards the society is appreciable. Commissions and kickbacks
are ruining the productivity. Educational and productive steps should be introduced for
overall development and wellbeing of the farmers. There can be much more economic
development of the village if the village gets aids from government in utilizing advance
technologies in agriculture, and animal husbandry. We would say that this report is a
looking glass, which reflects the face of that village.

In conclusion we can say that a part of field study “Socio-Economic Survey” is a

part and partial of education system. It is also a very essential and important part of
education, because it helps us to know and realize the Socio-economic condition of
particular society, the living standard of its people and their views towards education.
So, the “Socio-Economic Survey” lays a pivot role in our educational system