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PROJECT REPORT

ON

RURAL AGRICULTURE WORK EXPERIENCE (RAWE)

SUBMITTED TO

SRI DEV SUMAN UTTARAKHAND UNIVERSITY, TEHRI GARHWAL

FOR THE AWARD DEGREE

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE

IN

AGRICULTURE

(2016-2020 BATCH)

SUBMITTED BY

HINA NABAM YAPI

BSc. AGRICULTURE

VIII SEMESTER

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

MR. SUBHAM CHOUDHARY(HOD)

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

JBIT COLLEGE OF APPLIED SCIENCES, DEHRADUN,UTTARAKHAND.

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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this report is a bonafide record of “RURAL AGRICULTURAL WORK
EXPERIENCE (RAWE) “Programme underdone by me during the eighth semester, B.Sc agriculture
course at “JBIT College of applied Sciences”, Dehradun .I undersigned hereby that this my own work & this
is original report work and is submitted by me to SRI DEV SUMAN UTTARAKHAND UNIVERSITY,
TEHRI GARHWAL, toward the partial fulfillment of the award B.Sc agriculture.

I have not submitted it or its part to any other academic institution for any degree

PLACE: HINA NABAM YAPI

DATE: B.Sc AGRICULTURE

VIIIth SEMESTER

2016-2020 BATCH
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Gratitude is not only the greatest of virtues, but the parent of all others.

-CICERO (106-43BC)

It is with great respect and devotion I place on record my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to Dr.
Yogender Singh Chauhan, Principal of JBIT college of applied sciences for his unbounded support
,valuable suggestions and whole hearted cooperation towards the satisfactory fulfillment of this endeavor.

I am deeply indebted to Mr. Subham Chaudhary, (HOD), JBIT college of applied sciences, for his inspiring
guidance, thought provoking suggestions, friendly approach, constant support & encouragement during the
conduct of this course.

My sincere thanks to all teachers in Department of Agriculture , JBIT college of applied sciences, for the
valuable help and advice.

It’s my pleasant privilege to acknowledge the services rendered from officers of

IPOINT CENTRE PREMNAGAR, UTTARAKHAND.

I am in dearth of words to express my love towards my beloved parents for all their boundless affection,
moral support, eternal love, deep concern, prayers, and personal sacrifices which sustains peace in my life.

I solely claim all the responsibility for any error, short coming, and limitations in this endeavor

HINA NABAM YAPI

FARMERS AND WORKERS MAKE INDIA. THEIR POVERTT IS INDIA’S CURSE

AND CRIME. THEIR PROSPERITY ALONE CAN MAKE INDIA A COUNTRY FIT
TO LIVE

-MAHATMA GANDHI
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APICULTURE CERTIFICATE
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INTRODUCTION

The most important area in which the development need to accelerate is agriculture, which is backbone of
countries economy.in order to spring about changes in the knowledge, skill and attitude of the people
engaged in farming sustained effort necessary and thus could be achieved only through purposeful
education, rural agriculture work experience (R.A.W.E.) is for imparting quality, practical productive
oriented education for the agriculture degree program.

Effective work experience training strategies incorporating rural agriculture experiment learning approaches
providing opportunities for a student of the last year to engage infield work activity to review and analyses
critically this experience activity and to draw some useful conclusion, decision from analysis and apply the
result in actual, practical and field situation.

Objective of RAWE Programme –

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1. To develop the understanding of community life and the different situation.

2. To familiarize with the socio economic condition of farmer and their problems with reference to
agriculture development.
3. To provide an opportunity to the students for practical training in crop production through work
experience.
4. To develop skills among students using extension teaching methods for transfer of technology.
5. The RAWE is a learner centered approach of exposing students by using principles of learning by doing
and “seeing and believing to think and act on their own.”

RAWE Programme is an important competence and confidence building activity and tool introduced to
provide integrated disciplines and practical training to farm graduates in Agriculture sciences. The
combination of education on farm research and extension programme has better exposure of fresh farm
graduates to the real ground problems at the farmers level and act as a tool of the feedback to workers for the
planning of their research programmes.

INDEX

UNIT I MUSHROOM CULTIVATION

UNIT II FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRIES

UNIT III SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY

UNIT IV APICULTURE
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UNIT I MUSHROOM CULTIVATION

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CONTENTS:

 INTRODUCTION

 IMPORTANCE OF MUSHROOM

 CULTIVATION OF OYSTER MUSHROOM

 FLOW CHART OF OYSTER MUSHROOM CULTIVATION

 DISEASE & PEST MANAGEMENT

 POST HARVET TECHNOLOGY OF OYSTER MUSHROOM

 MARKETING ANALYSIS & STRATEGY

 CONCLUTION

INTRODUCTION

Mushroom belongs to the plant kingdom known as “FUNGI”. They cannot produce their own food and it
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depends on organic matter for their nutrition. They grow saprophytic ally on various substrates or
parasitically and symbiotically on or with other organism. Commonly, mushrooms are in the form of an
umbrella like structure or a cap with stalk. However, there is a lot of variation in fruiting structure with
different shapes, sizes and with or without stock. Some varieties even produce fruiting bodies underground.
There are large number of species growing wild in nature, while many edible; some are mild to deadly
poisonous. In ancient times mushroom has been treated as a special kind of food and were considered as a
functional food because of its medicinal and nutritional property.

Mushroom is a short duration crop that takes only 20-30days to get the first harvest and entire cropping
cycle is completed within 45-60days. The bio efficiency of mushroom is very high as for every KG of paddy
straw used 500-1000gm of fresh mushroom is harvested. Mushroom growing is eco-friendly as it involves
recycling of plant waste to produce protein rich food and its spent mushroom substrate can be use to produce
organic manure.

Mushrooms are popular for their

delicacy and flavored food value. It is
well established fact they are excellent
sources of vitamins and minerals.

Fig: Morphology of mushroom

Fresh mushrooms constitute 80-90%

moisture 3% protein 0.3-0.4% fat and
1% minerals. With the low fat and
carbohydrate content they constitute an
ideal dish for diabetic patients, heart
diseases, hypertension and obesity.

IMPORTANCE OF MUSHROOM

Mushrooms help plants grow. Together with bacteria they help dead materials get back into soil so that it
can be used again. Some are useful in controlling pests of crops. It also has a medicinal and nutritional value
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such as.

Cholesterol Levels: Mushrooms themselves provide with lean proteins as they have zero cholesterol, fats
and very low carbohydrates. The fibre and certain enzymes in them also help lower cholesterol level.
Moreover, the high lean protein content in mushrooms helps in burning cholesterol when they are digested.

Breast cancer and prostate cancer: Mushrooms are very effective in preventing cancer of breasts and
prostrate due to presence of Beta-Glucans and conjugated Linoleic Acid having anti carcinogenic effects.
Out of these two, linoleic acid is particularly helpful in suppressing effects of estrogen. This estrogen is the
prime reason for breast cancer in women after menopause. The Beta-Glucans, on the other hand, inhibit
growth of cancerous cells in cases of prostate cancer. Selenium in mushrooms is very effective in inhibiting
cancerous cells.

Diabetes: Mushrooms can be an ideal low energy diet for diabetes. They have no fats, no cholesterol, very
low carbohydrates, high proteins, vitamins and minerals, a lot of water and fibre. Moreover, they contain
natural insulin and enzymes which help in breaking down of sugar or starch of the food. Again, they are
known to contain certain compounds which help proper functioning of liver, pancreas and the other
endocrine glands, thereby promoting formation of insulin and its proper flow.

Immunity: Mushrooms contain natural antibiotics (similar to penicillin, which itself is extracted from
mushrooms) which inhibit microbial and other fungal infections. They also help heal other ulcers and
ulcerous wounds and protect them from infections. A good combination of vitamins A, B-Complex and C,
found in mushrooms also strengthens immune system.

Nutrients: Mushrooms are the only vegetable and the second known source (after cod liver oil) to contain
vitamin-D in edible from. They are very rich in calcium (good for bones), iron(benefits in anemia),
potassium (very good for lowering blood pressure), copper (anti bacterial) and selenium (very good for
health of bones, teeth, nails, and as an anti oxidant). The best source of selenium is animal proteins. So,
mushrooms can be the best choice for vegetarians to obtain selenium.

MEDICINAL VALUE: Mushrooms have got medicinal properties and have traditionally been used in
CHINA and JAPAN. Cosmetic products and tonic beverages have been produced in CHINA from
Ganoderma mushrooms. Recently maitake (Grifolia frondosa) and shaitake (Lentinus edodes) mushrooms
have been reported to inhibitory to AIDS virus in USA and JAPAN

IMPORTANT MUSHROOMS GROWN IN INDIA

Presently mushrooms are being cultivated in about an annual production of 12million MT .Production of
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mushrooms are concerned in 3 geographical regions about 55% in Europe, 27% in North America.

S.N COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME

1. Button/European/Temperate mushroom Agaricus bisporus
2. Edulis/ hot weather mushroom Agaricus bitorquis
3. Oyster / dhingari mushroom Pleurotus spp.
4. Paddy straw/ Chinese/tropical mushroom Volvariella volvaceae
5. B lack ear mushroom Auricularia polytrica
6. White milky mushroom Calocybe indica
7. Shaitake/ black forest mushroom Lentinus edodes

CULTIVATION OF OYSTER MUSHROOM

Oyster mushroom also known as DHINGRI or JAPANESE mushroom has the capability of braking down
cellulose and lignin bearing materials. Its cultivation is easy and its cost of production is also low. Like all
fleshy fruits and vegetables, mushrooms are highly perishable of their high moisture content and delicate in
nature.

Classification

Scientific name: Pleurotus florida

Common name: Oyster mushroom

Kingdom : Fungi

Phylum : Basidiomycota

Class : Agaricomycetes

Order : Agaricales

Family : Pleuroteceae

Climatic requirement- Oyster mushroom can be grown within a temperature range of 16 0C-300C for its
optimum growth. The favorable growing seasons are during Feb /mar- Oct /Nov in the hills and sep/oct-
mar/apr in the plains.
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FIG: OYSTER MUSHROOM

Material requirements-

1. Paddy straw
2. Perforated Ply bags(18’x12’)Mushroom spawn
3. Room with bamboo racks
4. Equipments like chaff cutter and boiling drum
5. Buckets and sprayers.

BUILDINGS AND OTHER FACILITIES

Most ordinary buildings are not suitable for mushrooms. Oyster mushrooms have some basic
requirements for the environment.

a) Temperature of 150-200C and humidity of 80-90%. Both temperature and humidity should be kept as
constant as possible as any rapid changes in temperature will cause disastrous changes in humidity.
b) Good ventilation: - It is needed for healthy mushroom and health of the growers. Ventilation removes
CO2 formed by mushrooms.
c) Light: - Light also helps in the growth of mushrooms. However natural daylight does not work well.
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Fig : Room for mushroom cultivation.

METHOD OF CULTIVATION

Cultivation Technology

The procedure for oyster mushroom cultivation can be divided into following four steps:
(i) Preparation or procurement of spawn
(ii) Substrate preparation
(iii) Spawning of substrate
(iv) Crop management

The production of the oyster mushroom can be conveniently summarized into a number of stages which
are to be strictly followed in order to achieve higher biological efficiencies (B.E). The stages are as
follows:

1. Mushroom growing house disinfection

2. Substrate preparation
3. Straw sterilization
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4. Spawning
5. Maturation
6. Harvesting
7. Post-harvest handling.

1. Mushroom growing house disinfection

The mushroom growing house (MGH) is a very selective environment for the growing of the oyster
mushroom. This means that it must not give chance for the growing of other competitor organisms
which will compete for nutrients with our mushrooms e.g. bacteria, other fungi, viruses and pests-
flies, rodents etc. Since chemicals are not encouraged to practice organic farming which involves the
non chemical production of mushrooms by using biological control methods. However, chemicals
like hypo chloride, dettol, formaldehyde or hydrogen peroxide can be used for initially disinfecting
the MGH or between cycles.

2. Substrate preparation
Oyster mushroom can be grown on various substrates viz. Paddy straw, maize stalks/cobs, vegetable
plant residues etc. Since paddy straw is easily available and cheap, it is widely used. Paddy straw
should be fresh and well-dried.

Spawn Preparation

A pure culture of Pleurotus spp. is needed for inoculation on sterilized substrate. It takes 10-15 days for
mycelia growth on cereal grains. It has been reported that jowar and bajra grains are superior over wheat
grains.
Substrate Preparation
Oyster mushroom can be cultivated on a large number of agro-wastes having cellulose and lignin which
helps in more enzyme production of cellulose that is correlated with more yield. These include straw of
paddy, wheat and ragi , stalk and leaves of maize, millets and cotton, used citronella leaf, sugarcane bagasse,
saw dust, jute and cotton waste, dehulled corncobs, pea nut shells, dried grasses, sunflower stalks, used tea
leaf waste, discarded waste paper and synthetic compost of button mushrooms etc. It can also be cultivated
by using industrial wastes like paper mill sludge, coffee by products, tobacco waste, apple pomace etc. The
popular methods of substrate preparation are:
 Steam Pasteurization;
 Hot Water Treatment;
 Sterile Technique (Till method);
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 Fermentation or Composting
 Chemical Sterilization.
 Spawning of Substrate

Freshly prepared (20-30 days old) grain spawn is best for spawning. Old spawn (3-6 months) stored at room
temperature (at 20-300 C) forms a very thick mat like structure due to mycelium aggregation and sometimes
young pinheads and fruit bodies start developing in the spawn bottle itself. The spawning should be done in
a pre-fumigated room (48hrs with 2% formaldehyde).

3. Straw sterilization
Cut the paddy straw into 2”long and then fill the gunny bag which is then soaked in water for an hour
after which the excess water is allowed to drain out. A drum of 220L capacity is filled with a small
amount of water with a wooden frame placed at the bottom of the drum is taken. Straw filled gunny
bags are kept at the top of the wooden frame so as to avoid it from getting soaked in water. The open
end of the drum is sealed with plastic sheet during sterilization. Sterilization of the straw is
considered once the water starts boiling which should be done for an hour after reaching boiling
point. On completion of sterilization the gunny bags are taken out n allowed to cool.

.
Fig: straw sterilization-straw making FIG: Straw bed preparation

4. Spawning
The sterilized straw is filled into the perforated poly-bags by slightly pressing so as to form about
3”thickness of the first layer. Then spread 20g of spawn uniformly over the entire straw layer and
repeat the process till 4-5 layers of straw ensuring that there is proper pressing for every layer.
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Crop Management
(A) Incubation
Spawned bags, trays or boxes are arranged in a dark cropping room on raised platforms or shelves for
mycelium colonization of the substrate. Although mycelium can grow from 10 to 330 C, but the optimum
temperature for spawn running lies between 220- 260 C.

FIG: FRUITING BODY

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Fig: Poly-bag filling

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(B) Fruiting
When the mycelium has fully colonized the substrate, the fungus is ready for fruiting. Contaminated bags
with moulds may be discarded while bags with mycelia growth may be left for few more days to complete
mycelia growth.
While various species require different temperature regimes all require high humidity (70- 85%) during
fruiting. Frequent spraying of water is required in the cropping room depending upon atmospheric humidity.
Fruit body produced under humid conditions (85 -90%) is bigger with less dry matter while those developed
at 65-70% relative humidity are small with high dry matter.
CO2 concentration during cropping should be less than 600 ppm. Or 0.6%. Sufficient ventilation has
to be provided during fruiting.

Fig. Preparation of spawn

5. Spawn running
Now compress the bag n tie its mouth with binding rope and the spawned bags are kept in a room
away from direct sunlight for incubation at a temperature between 20 0-300C . After 3 weeks or so the
whole substrate turns white which indicate the spawn run completion. So the plastic cover is
removed and the bags are placed by tying in bamboo poles inside the growing room. Watering
should be done2 days after opening of the bag and within 2-3 days mushroom primordial begins to
form.

Fig: mycelium growth

6. Harvesting
The first harvest of mushroom can be taken in 5-7 days of pinhead formation by giving a gentle twist
of the fruiting body. Light watering should be given on daily basis and after a week another sprout of
pinhead will appear. 3-4 flushes during 1 cropping cycle can be obtained after which the leftover
substrate can be used for the production of manure.
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7. Yield
An average yield of 0.75-1 kg fresh mushroom per cropping cycle is obtained.

FIG: MUSHROOM READY FOR HARVEST

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FLOWCHART OF OYSTER MUSHROOM CULTIVATION

Raw materials (paddy straw/vegetable plant residue)

Chopping

Soaking the straw (1 hr)

Drain off excess water

Fill up in gunny bag

Dip in hot water for 15 minutes

Drain off excess water

On cooling fill the bags 4-5 layers of 10 cm each with spawn

Arrange bags in shelves (spawn requires 20-25 days)

Pin head stage evolves (3-5 days)

Harvesting is done in 7 days

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DISEASES AND PEST MANAGEMENT

Green mould (Trichoderma spp.)

Small blue green cushions are seen on spawned and cased trays/bags. It also grows on dead pinheads of
mushrooms and cut stumps. Mushroom caps may turn brown on top side.

Bacterial Blotch:

Symptoms: The lesions induced by the pathogen on mushroom tissues are initially pale yellow but later it
become golden yellow or chocolate brown. Blotches generally appear when mushrooms are in the early
button stage, but can appear on mushroom of any growth stage including harvested refrigerated mushrooms
or mushrooms over-wrapped with a water tight film Typical spotting is observed at or near the edge of
mushroom cap, at the contact points between two mushroom caps, at crevices in clusters of mushroom or
wherever mushroom caps remain wet for a period of 4-6 hours or longer after water has been applied.
Severely affected mushrooms may be distorted and the caps may split where the blotch symptoms occur.

Sciarid flies: (Bradysia paupera, B. tritici)

• The adults are found to be grayish black, 2.2-3.2 mm long.

• In the female flies, the abdomen is swollen with pointed ovipositor.

• Larvae with dirty white transparent with visible alimentary canal and 6.0 to 8.0 mm long.
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MITES

• Quite abundant during composting and later during spawn run and cropping.

• All are not the pests of mushrooms

POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY OF OYSTER MUSHROOM

Mushrooms continue to respire after harvest and the respiration rate of oyster mushroom is 3 times greater
than most fruits. However, there are certain measures which enhance the shelf-life and make the availability
of mushroom throughout the year at reasonable cost. These are the long term and short term preservation.

SHORT TERM STORAGE

 Harvesting and packaging:- Oyster mushroom should be harvested by giving a gentle twist of the
fruiting body. It is advisable to pick all the mushrooms at a time from the bag so that the next flush
will appear in time. Harvested mushrooms are then packed in perforated polythene bags.
 Storage:-Freshly harvested oyster mushroom can be stored at a temperature of 0-5 0C for 1-2 weeks
without loss in quality.
 Transportation: - The mushrooms are placed in trays or baskets containing crushed ice and over-
wrapped in paper. The tray or basket is then covered with polythene sheet of sufficient perforation.

LONG TERM STORAGE

 Drying of mushroom: -Drying or dehydration is the oldest method of preserving mushroom and is
still popular. Mushrooms for drying should be harvested at a matured stage. It can be dried in the sun
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or in mechanical dehydrator. After complete drying, mushrooms should be placed in air-tight

container in a cool and dry place. Dried mushroom can be grinded into powder for mushroom soup.
 Mushroom pickle: -Pickling is an economically viable way of preserving mushroom during the off-
season. It is a process to relish mushroom lovers when the cost of mushroom is too high.

 FIG. MUSHROOM PICKLES

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MARKET ANALYSIS AND STRATEGY

Demand and Supply Patterns

This mushroom is not as popular as white button mushroom in the domestic market. Cultivation of this
mushroom on commercial basis would be more profitable as compared to white button mushrooms capital
costs are low.
The cultivation of this variety of mushroom is very simple and economical in rural areas where raw
materials and facilities required are easily available.
Marketing of fresh oyster mushroom does not pose any problem at present due to very low production.
However, as production increases linkage of producers with domestic markets and export oriented
processing units will need to be developed to ensure remunerative prices to the producers. Generally, export
orders are too big to be met by a single grower and as such co-operatives have to be encouraged to pool their
produce for trading the crop in a dried powder form in international markets.

Import / Export Trends

About 11,797 tonnes of fresh mushrooms and 4,099 tonnes of preserved mushrooms were exported to
foreign countries viz. U.S.A., France, Ireland, U.A.E., and Russia etc. during the period 2001-2002. The
quantity of oyster mushroom exported is much lower than that of button mushrooms which constitute the
major share of exports

CONCLUSION

Mushroom cultivation has many facilities requirements. There are no shortcuts to those requirements. If
the requirements are not met, failure, or at least poor production is assured. The facilities must provide the
environment required for mushroom growth and must also provide the primary protection against insects,
other pests and disease. Without the environment and protection provided by the facilities, management
cannot protect the crop or obtain good yields.

Mushroom cultivation in Nagaland is still in its early stages and has a long way to go before it picks up
its pace. Mushroom cultivation is very viable enterprise that can be taken up by the common people as the
cost involved is minimal and the returns are maximum. Mushroom cultivation can be taken up as a part time
or full time enterprise as not much effort is required for cultivating them. It can be contributed in minimizing
the unemployment problems faced by the state as the people can take up mushroom cultivation as a full time
occupation.
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Mushrooms were always a delicacy for the Nagas and now they have started to realize the medicinal
values of the mushrooms due to various educational initiatives taken by the state department in educating the
people. Due to the suitability of the weather condition a number of mushrooms can be grown in Nagaland
according to different seasons. Mushrooms are grown in various state nurseries, by private and various self-
help groups. Mushrooms sell at a high price per kg mainly due to the medicinal properties.
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UNIT II FOOD PROCESSING INDUSRTRIES

CONTENTS:

 INTRODUCTION

 HISTORY OF FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY IN INDIA

 IMPORTANCE OF FOOD PROCESSING AND TECHNOLOGY

 CHALLENGES FACED BY THE INDUSTRY

 GOVT.INITIATIVES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF FOOD PROCESSING SECTOR

 MARKET SIZE

 TOP LEADING COMPANIES

 PREPARATION OF JAM, JELLY & MARMALADE

 CONCLUSION
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INTRODUCTION

Food processing sector is indispensable for the overall development of an economy as it provides a vital
linkage and synergy between the agriculture and industry. It helps to diversify and commercialize farming;
enhance income of farmers; create markets for export of agro foods as well as generate greater employment
opportunities. Through the presence of such industries, a wider range of food products could be sold and
distributed to the distant locations. The term "food processing" is mainly defined as a process of value
addition to the agricultural or horticultural produce by various methods like grading, sorting and packaging.
In other words, it is a technique of manufacturing and preserving food substances in an effective manner
with a view to enhance their shelf life; improve quality's well as make them functionally more useful. It
covers spectrum of products from sub"sectors comprising agriculture, horticulture, plantation, animal
husbandry and fisheries.Food processing industry is one of the largest industry in India and is ranked 5th in
terms of production, consumption and export. Earlier, food processing was largely confined to the food
preservation, packaging and transportation, which mainly involved salting,curdling, drying, pickling, etc.
However, over the years, with emerging new markets and technologies, the sector has widened its scope. It
has started producing many new items like ready to eat food, beverages, processed and frozen fruit and
vegetable products,marine and meat products, etc. It also includes establishment of post harvest
infrastructure for processing of various food in terms like cold storage facilities, food parks, packaging
centers, value added centers, irradiation facilities and modernized abattoir.

The food processing sector comprises of two segments

Primary segment comprises of packaged fruit and vegetables, milk, flour, rice, spices etc and constitutes
around 62% in value terms of the processed foods. Value added segment includes processed fruits and
vegetables, juices, jam  jelly etc and holds around 38% share in the total processed food.

In an emerging country like India, where growth with equity is a primary policy thrust,the optimum
development of the food processing sector will contribute significantly in tackling several developmental
concerns such as disguised unemployment in agriculture,rural poverty, food security, food inflation,
improved nutrition, prevention of wastage of food etc. By serving as a bridge between agriculture and
manufacturing and by dealing with a basic need of all Indian citizens the assured supply of healthy and
affordable food at all locations in the country, this sector has the potential to be a major driver in India's
growth in the coming years. In fact the food processing sector has been growing faster than the agriculture
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sector .The food processing industry includes a diverse group of companies involved in the processing of
products like fish, meat, milk, crops and water. It includes millions of small & medium enterprises (SMEs)
worldwide and also some of the largest companies in the world. Many of these companies deliver products
directly to consumers, while others specialize in Business to Business activities (ingredients,commodity
markets) . Some companies directly participate in all areas of food production, from farming activities
through to final production and retail. Others are concentrated more at the top end of the production chain or
buy through commodity markets. In fact, Food processing is one of the world's largest industries from the
perspective of the number of companies involved in the sector, as well as in terms of its total economic
value .

The sector comprises of the following major areas

Fruits & Vegetables

Beverages, juices, concentrates, pulps, slices, Frozen Frozen & dehydrated products, wine potato
wafers/chips etc.

Fisheries

Frozen & canned products mainly in fresh form

Meat & Poultry

Frozen and packed mainly in fresh form, egg & powder

Milk & Dairy

Whole milk & powder, skimmed milk powder, condensed milk, Ice cream, /utter and ghee

Grain and Cereals

Flour, Bakeries, Biscuits, Starch Glucose, Cornflakes, Malted Foods, Vermicelli, & Pasta Foods, Beer and
Malt extracts, grain based alcohol.
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Consumer Industry

Chocolates, Confectionery, Soft Aerated Beverages /drinks

Plantation

Tea, coffee, cashew, cocoa, coconut

HISTORY OF FOOD PROCESSING

Food processing dates back to the prehistoric ages when crude processing incorporated slaughtering,
fermenting, sun drying, preserving with salt, and various types of cooking (such as roasting, smoking,
steaming, and oven baking).Salt preservation was especially common for foods that constituted warrior and
sailor's diets, until the introduction of canning methods. Evidence for the existence of these methods can be
found in the writings of the ancient Greek, Chaldean, Egyptian and Roman civilizations as well as
archaeological evidence from Europe, North and South America and Asia. These tried and tested processing
techniques remained essentially the same until the advent of the industrial revolution. Examples of ready
meals also exist from pre industrial revolution times such as the Cornish pasty and haggis. During ancient
times and today these are considered processing foods. Food processing has also helped create quick,
nutritious meals to give to busy families. Modern food processing technology in the 19th and 20th century
was largely developed to serve military needs. In 1809 Nicolas Appert invented a vacuum bottling technique
that would supply food for French troops, and this contributed to the development of tinning and then
canning by Peter Du rand in 1810. Although initially expensive and somewhat hazardous due to the lead
used in cans,canned goods would later become a staple around the world. & pasteurization, discovered by
Louis Pasteur 1862, was a significant advance in ensuring the micro biological safety of food.

In the 20th century, world war II, thes pace race and the rising consumer society in developed countries
(including the United States) contributed to the growth of food processing with such advances as spray
drying, juice concentrates, freeze drying and the introduction of artificial sweeteners, colouring agents, and
preservatives such as sodium benzoate. In the late 20th century products such as dried instant soups,
reconstituted fruits and juices, and self cooking meals such as MRE food ration were developed.

In western Europe and North America, the second half of the 20th century witnessed arise in the pursuit of
convenience. Food processing companies marketed their products especially towards middle class working
wives and mothers. Frozen foods (often credited to Clarence Birdseye) found their success in sales of juice
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concentrates and "TV' dinners".Processors utilized the perceived value of time to appeal to the post war
population, and this same appeal contributes to the success of convenience foods today.

History of Food laws

Food laws were among the earliest of enactments known to man. Governments over many centuries have
endeavored to provide for the safety and wholesomeness of man's food by legal provisions and appropriate
punitive action. Over the years also, rude forms of fraud, such as adding worthless substances to food or
extracting valuable constituents from it, have been followed by sophisticated methods of adulteration more
difficult to detect. The birth of modern chemistry in the early nineteenth century made possible the
production of materials possessing properties similar to normal foods which, when fraudulently used, did not
readily attract the attention of the unsuspecting purchaser.Later, better analytical methods were used in food
control work to detect adulterants.When scientists demonstrated that some adulterants were dangerous to
health, the aroused public demanded laws that would both protect their health and prevent fraud.Food laws
in one form or another, such as religious tenets or prohibitions, were inherent in all ancient civilizations and
have come down to us from early times. It was not until the late nineteenth and early twentieth century with
the urbanization of societies and the depopulation of rural areas that food laws, as understood today, were
prepared. This process was hastened by pressure that developed as the public rebelled against the generally
unhygienic condition.

Importance of Food Processing Industry

The Food Processing Industry (FPI) is of enormous significance as it provides vital linkages and synergies that
it promotes between the two pillars of the economy, i.e. agriculture and industry.

 Employment Generation: It provides direct and indirect employment opportunities, because it acts as a
bridge between Agriculture and Manufacturing

 Doubling of farmers’ income: With the rise in demand for agri - products there will be commensurate rise in
the price paid to the farmer, thereby increasing the income.
 Reduce malnutrition: Processed foods when fortified with vitamins and minerals can reduce the nutritional
gap in the population.
 Reduce food wastage: UN estimates that 40% of production is wasted. Similarly, NITI Aayog estimated
annual post-harvest losses of close to Rs 90,000 crore. With greater thrust on proper sorting and grading
close to the farm gate, and diverting extra produce to FPI, this wastage could also be reduced, leading to
better price realization for farmers.

 Boosts Trade and Earns Foreign exchange: It is an important source of foreign exchange. For e.g. Indian
Basmati rice is in great demand in Middle Eastern countries.
 Curbing Migration: Food Processing being a labour intensive industry will provide localized employment
opportunities and thus will reduce the push factor in source regions of migration.
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 Curbing Food Inflation: Processing increases the shelf life of the food thus keeping supplies in tune with the
demand thereby controlling food-inflation. For e.g. Frozen Safal peas are available throughout the year.
 Crop-diversification: Food processing will require different types of inputs thus creating an incentive for the
farmer to grow and diversify crops.
 Preserve the nutritive quality of food and prolongs the shelf life by preventing them from spoilage due to
microbes and other spoilage agents,
 Enhances the quality and taste of food thereby bringing more choices in food basket
 Enhances consumer choices: Today, food processing allows food from other parts of the world to be
transported to our local market and vice versa.

CHALLENGES FACED BY THE INDUSTRY

High level of wastage of agricultural produces is primarily on account of the inherent disadvantages faced
by the sector. This sector is characterized by preponderance of small farmers, small scale & tiny processors,
outdated technology, poor infrastructure and amaze of middle men. Therefore, this sector needs support in
terms of creation and strengthening of infrastructure which individual farmers and processors will not be in a
position to create and sustain. Further, there is also a need for strengthening R&D activities in food
processing sector for innovation of technology which suits local needs, popularization of appropriate
technology, skill development and creation of AN institutional framework supportive of the industry.

At present most of the industries are in unorganized sectors. So, number of problems are arising from
different sections of the industries. Some of the basic problems encountered by Indian food industries at
different levels are given below.

Farm level problems

 Poor yield of farm produce and therefore low returns

 Lack of material resources necessary for development

 Primitive methods of farming

 No control on the quality of inputs and lack of finance to manage

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 Vagaries of weather.

 Unavailability of reliable handling and transportation system.

 Lack of storage facilities at farm

 Distributors’ problems

Lack of modern transportation facilities and high cost

 Inadequate cold storage faculties

 Irregular quality and quantity of farm produce

 Processing industries problem

Financing

 Higher import duties

 Higher cost of raw material and packaging

 Inadequate transport and cold storage facilities

 Infrequent availability of refrigerated containers

 Staggering advertising costs

 Limited domestic market

Consumer discontent

 Does not get value for money

 The price variation is a day to day affair

 Continued dependence on seasonal products

 Lack of variety of semi processed or prepared convenience food at affordable prices.

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GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES

It has been the endeavor of the Government to promote food processing industry in the country to reduce
wastage of agricultural produce and minimize post- harvest losses.

1. Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojana (PMKSY): In August 2017, the CCEA gave its gesture for
the PMKSY. It is an umbrella plan that consolidates different progressing plans like Mega Food Parks,
Integrated Cold Chain, Value Addition Infrastructure, Food Safety, and Quality Assurance
Infrastructure, Infrastructure for Agro-processing Clusters, Creation of Backward and Forward Linkages
and Creation and Expansion of Food Processing and Preservation Capacities.

2. Mega Food Parks Scheme: It goes for giving a component to interface rural generation to the market
by uniting farmers, processors and retailers amplify value addition, limiting wastage, expanding income
of farmers and creating employment opportunities especially in the rural sector. A Mega Food Park
involves a territory of at least 50 sections of land and works in a group constructed approach situated in
light of a center and spokes model.

3. Scheme of Cold Chain, Value Addition and Preservation Infrastructure: The goal of the scheme is to
give incorporated cool chain and conservation framework facilities, with no break, from the farm gate to
the customer. It envelops pre-cooling facilities at production sites, reefer vans, mobile cooling units as
well as value addition hubs

4. Modernization of Abattoirs scheme: The major goal of the Scheme is a form of processing and
preservation capacities and modernization and growth of obtainable food processing units with a vision
to increase the level of processing, value addition leading to a diminution of wastage.

5. Make In India: A portion of the Make In India campaign, the food processing sector was recognized as
one of the 25 concentrated areas. Therefore, the policy, ecosystem has been refurbished to draw
financial, technological and human resources into the zone. Allowing 100% FDI via automatic direction
into this sector is also an important footstep in this direction.

6. Food Processing Fund: A special fund in the NABARD worth INR 2,000 crore, chosen as the Food
Processing Fund, was set up in the FY 2014-15 for offering reasonable credit for food processing units
in Mega & Designated Food Parks.

MARKET SIZE

The Indian food industry, the food and grocery market, is the sixth-largest market in the world and it
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contributes to 70% of the total sales. Talking about the contribution within the country, the food processing
industry has a share of 32% in the nation’s total market. In terms of production, consumption, and exports, it
is ranked as the fifth-largest industry in India.

The Indian gourmet food market is valued at US$1.3 billion and is growing at a Compound Annual Growth
Rate (CAGR) of 20 per cent. The online food ordering business in India is in its nascent stage but has seen a
drastic transformation with companies like Food Panda, Zomato and Swiggy and many such are ready to
take the Indian online food ordering business to new heights.

Online food ordering sector saw a strong growth rate in the number of daily orders, growing consistently at
15 per cent on a quarterly basis from January to September 2017. The food processing sector has also
emerged as an important segment of the Indian economy in terms of its contribution to GDP, employment
and investment. The sector constituted as much as 8.83 per cent and 10.66 per cent of GVA in
manufacturing and agriculture sectors respectively in 2017-18 at 2011-12 prices.

List of top 10 food processing companies in India are as follows-

a) Nestle India Ltd

Nestle India Ltd was established in the year 1866 and is headquartered in Switzerland. It is one of the top 10
food processing companies in India. The company produces various products including coffee, water, dairy
products, snacks, etc, The company has branches in more than 80 countries with adequate employees who
give the best outcome. The company has four branches located in India. The company was founded by Henri
Nestle.

b) Parle Agro Pvt Ltd

Parle Agro Pvt Ltd is one of the best food processing companies found in India. The company was founded
in the year 1984. The company produces food, beverages, and water. The company is especially known for
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its biscuits.

c) Britannia Industries Ltd

One of the top 10 food processing companies in India, Britannia Industries Ltd was established in the year
1892 and has its headquarters located in Kolkata, Bengaluru. The company’s principal activity is the
manufacture and sales of bread, rusk, cakes, and dairy products.

d) Mondelez India Foods Pvt Ltd (Cadbury)

The company was established in the year 1824 and has been very successful till now. The company offers
chocolates under the Cadbury Dairy Milk Celebrations, Bournville, 5 star, Perk, Gems, Toblerone, and
Chocolairs brand names. The company also provides a malted drink under the Cadbury Bournvita brand
name. The company is well known for its chocolates among the people of India.

e) LT Foods Ltd (Daawat)

L.T is one of the top 10 Food Processing Companies in India. It is one of the leading rice brands in India. It
is named behind many popular products including Dawaat, Royal, Ecolife, Devaaya, Heritage.

The company was started in the year 1990 by Mr. Vijay Kumar Arora. He had started its small company in
the village of Amritsar. It is a leading processor of rice and other specialty foods in India. LT Foods Brands
and Products are sold over across Asia, Europe, Australia, North & South America, and Africa.

f) Gujarat Ambuja Exports Ltd

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It is one of the leading Indian Food Processing Company. Gujarat Ambuja is a leading manufacturer of Soya
Derivatives, Starch Derivatives, and Cotton Yarn. The company is engaged in the production of green
energy from wind turbines and solar. Its different products are

DoonDoo

Vanaspati Ghee

Refined Palm Oil

RBD Palmolein Oil

Cotton Seed Refine Oil

Bakery Shortening

Malto Dextrin

Dextrose Monohydrate etc

g) KRBL Ltd

The leading rice company was founded in the year 1889. It is India’s leading integrated rice company with a
comprehensive product chain. It is offering a wide range of brands including

India Gate

Doon

Nur Jahan

Indian Farm etc

The company has made its both global and local presence because of its quality products. Strengths of the
company are research & development, seed development, contract farming, procurement, aging and storage,
milling, quality control, and organic basmati rice.

h) Venkys India Ltd (VH)

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VH Group was founded in the year 1971 when motivated by his wife Late Smt Uttaradevi Rao. The
company diversified its activities to include chicken and eggs processing, SPF eggs, Poultry vaccine, broiler
and layer breeding, genetic research and Poultry diseases diagnostic, and feed supplements, vaccine
production, bio-security products, Poultry feed & equipment, nutritional health products, soya bean extract
and many more.

i) KSE Ltd

KSE Ltd was founded in the year 1963. It is headquartered in Thrissur District of Kerala India. It is involved
in the manufacturing of Cattle Feed, Oil Cake Processing and Dairy Products in Irinjalakkuda, Thrissur
District, state of Kerala, India.

The company operates in three business segments-Cattle Feed Division, Oil Cake Processing Division, and
Dairy Division comprising milk and milk products, including ice cream.

j) MTR Foods Pvt Ltd (Orkla)

MTR Foods Pvt Ltd was founded in the year 1924. The company is headquartered in Bengaluru, Karnataka.
The company manufactures a range of packaged foods including breakfast mixes, ready to eat meals, spices,
snacks, and beverages. The company markets and exports its products to the United States, The United
Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Singapore, The United Arab Emirates, and Oman.

JAMS, JELLIES AND MARMALADE

Introduction
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Jams, jellies and marmalade can be made from a variety of fruits and some vegetables such as carrot and
pumpkin. They are sometimes referred to collectively as preserves. The products are typically luxury items
that are purchased by consumers in affluent urban areas. As with all food products, it is essential to carry out
a market and technical feasibility study before starting to make preserves, to assess the level of demand for
the products in your area. Please remember that jam making requires a large amount of sugar and making a
high quality product requires some technical knowledge, the correct equipment and good packaging
materials. A surplus of (over-ripe) fruit is not a good reason for starting a business making preserves.

The preservation principles of jam, jelly and marmalade production are quite complex, but in essence
involve the correct combination of acidity, sugar level and pectin content. All three must be correct to obtain
a satisfactory product.One important feature of preserves is the high acidity which prevents the growth of
food poisoning bacteria and also helps maintain the colour and flavour of most fruits. However, some
moulds and yeasts are able to grow at levels of high acidity and these can spoil the food. They are prevented
from spoiling jams by ensuring that the sugar content of the preserve is at least 68%. If for any reason the
sugar content is lower than this (e g if water condenses on the lid of the jar and falls onto the jam during
cooling or if the jam is not boiled for long enough to reduce the moisture content) the sugar content will be
diluted and moulds will start to grow on the surface of the product.

This technical brief describes the principles and process of jam making. Generic formula are
given which the more technical processors can use to create their own recipes. In addition, some
tried and tested recipes for various fruits are included.

Types of Products

Jams are solid gels made from fruit pulp or juice, sugar and added pectin. They can be made
from single fruits or a combination of fruits. The fruit content should be at least 40%. In mixed
fruit jams the first-named fruit should be at least 50% of the total fruit added (based on UK
legislation). The total sugar content of jam should not be less than 68%.

Jellies are crystal clear jams, produced using filtered fruit juice instead of fruit pulp.

Marmalade s are produced mainly from clear citrus juices and have fine shreds of peel suspended in the gel.
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Commonly used fruits include lime, orange, grapefruit, lemon and orange. Ginger may also be used alone or
in combination with these citrus fruits. The fruit content should not be less than 20% citrus fruit and the
sugar content is similar to jams. Quality control and assurance The main areas of quality control that are
needed to produce uniformly high quality products areas follows: fruit preparation, accurate weighing and
mixing of ingredients, hygienic preparation of fruits and fruit juices, correct acidity, moisture content and
final total soluble solids content.Fruit preparation Fruit should be sorted and cleaned thoroughly. Only
mature fruit, without mould, excessive bruising or insect damage should be used. All stems, leaves and skins
should be removed and discarded. Very ripe or over-ripe fruit has low levels of pectin and is not suitable for
jam making and should not be used. Fruit that is very under-ripe is also not recommended as the taste and
sweetness of the fruit are under-developed. Ingredient mixing Accurate scales are needed to weigh out the
ingredients and care is needed to make sure that the correct weights are used each time. In particular, pectin
powder should be thoroughly mixed with sugar to prevent lumps forming and resulting in a weak gel.

Production/preparation

Fruit pulp/juice
It is possible to peel and pulp the fruit and press and filter the juice by hand, but the amount of fruit that can
be processed this way in one working day is very low (eg 10-20 half kilogram jars per day). Also, the
procedure is both laborious and time consuming and is more prone to contamination as the juice is left lying
around for long periods before it is processed. If this is the level of production required, then it is fine to do
the whole process manually. However, for a slightly higher and more efficient level of production it is better
to use small manual or powered equipment to pulp the fruit and/or express the juice. Juice or pulp contains
enzymes and in many fruits these cause rapid browning of the exposed fruit juice or flesh if they are not
destroyed or inhibited from acting. The easiest way to control browning is to heat the juice in small batches
as it is produced, rather than producing a large amount and storing it for several hours before use. The
procedure described under 'batch preparation' and 'boiling' has been found to work very well.

Sugar
If possible, refined, granular, white sugar should be used, but even this sometimes contains small amounts of
material (e g black specks) which reduce the value of a preserve. To make a higher quality clearer jam, the
sugar should be dissolved in water to make a strong syrup and then filtered through muslin cloth or a fine
mesh before it is added to the fruit pulp. It is most important that the filters and pans are thoroughly cleaned
each day to prevent insects and microorganisms from contaminating the equipment.The strength of the sugar
syrup can be easily calculated as follows: % sugar = weight sugar x 100 weight sugar + weight water So for
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example a 50% sugar solution (50°Brix) could be made by dissolving 500g sugar in 500ml water.

Pectin
All fruits contain pectin in the skins and to a lesser extent in the pulp. However, the amount of pectin varies
with the type of fruit and the stage of maturity. Apples, citrus peels and passion fruit all contain a high
concentration of pectin while strawberries and melon contain less. In Jam, jellies & marmalade
general, the amount of pectin in fruit decreases as the fruit matures. Fruits that are high in pectin can be
mixed with those that are lower, for example, strawberry and apple, to make a mixed fruit jam.Although it is
possible to make a good preserve using the pectin already in the fruit, a higher
quality product can be made by adding commercial pectin powder or solution. This will produce a
standardized gel each time and there will be less risk of a batch failing to set. However, commercial pectin
may not be available in all areas or may be too expensive for small scale processors. If this is so, a pectin
extract can be made at home from fruits that are naturally rich in pectin.There are several different types of
pectin available, but for preserves, a slow setting type is needed so that the gel forms in the jar during
cooling. However, in larger containers (eg 5-10kg jars of jam) or for preserves in which peels or pieces of
fruit are suspended in the gel, a faster setting pectin in needed. In both types, the concentration of pectin
varies from 0.2-0.7% depending on the type of fruit being used. Pectin is usually supplied as '150 grade' (or
150 SAG)which indicates the ratio of the weight of sugar to weight of pectin that will produce a standard
strength of gel when the preserve is boiled to 65% soluble solids. 5 SAG is normally enough to produce a
good gel .

Food colour and preservatives

During boiling, fruit pulps and juices usually darken in colour. Some fruits only change a small amount and
produce a colour which is still acceptable for jam making. Other fruits darken too much and produce a dark
brown preserve which is not very attractive to consumers. Processors may consider adding some artificial
colour to these products to improve their appearance. It is better if natural fruit colors can be used – for
example, adding dark red fruits or berries can give a more attractive and natural colour to jams. Most
consumers prefer to eat preserves that are free from artificial colouring. As a processor, you are likely to get
a higher price for products that are more natural and free from colors. If you do need to add colour to your
preserve, it is important to check with the local Bureau of Standards to see which colors are allowed in your
particular country and the permitted levels.

Boiling to reach the final sugar concentration

The aim of boiling is to reduce the water content of the mixture and concentrate the fruit and sugar in as
short a time as possible. The final Total Soluble Solids (TSS) content of a jam (also known as the “Degrees
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Brix ” or “end-point of the jam”) should be 65 to 68%. (The TSS is a measure of the amount of material that
is soluble in water. It is expressed as a percentage -a product with 100% soluble solids, has no water and one
with 0% soluble solids is all water).The correct sugar content is critical for proper gel formation and for
preservation of the jam or jelly. If the final TSS of jam is lower than 65-68% the shelf life will be reduced.
The jam will have a runny consistency and bacteria and moulds will be able to grow in the product. If the
TSS is higher than 68%, the jam will be very stiff and the sugar might start to form crystals in the jam.The
end-point of boiling is measured in different ways. The most accurate method is to use a refractometer to
measure the total sugar concentration. This method is not really suitable for home-use as a refractometer
costs about US$ 150. It is only when making jam for sale that you might consider using a refractometer to
ensure consistency between different batches of the jam. When making jam for home consumption, you can
use other methods to determine the end point: the drop test, the skin wrinkle test, or the use of a jam
thermometer to test the temperature (68% sugar corresponds to a jam temperature of 105°C).When the jam
starts to thicken, it is important to test for the end point at frequent intervals. Remember to remove the pan
from the heat source while you test or it will continue to thicken and may burn.

Judging the end-point or point at which boiling is stopped

18.2.6.1 Determining the boiling point with thermometer

Thermometers or thermocouples are used to indicate the temperature which should be approximately the
boiling point of a 65% sugar solution (103.9-105°C), when the process is complete. A 65% solids boils at
104.8°C at sea level. It should be 8-9°C higher than the boiling point of water at that place.

18.2.6.2 Hydrometers

They help in determining the specific gravity of material.

18.2.6.3 Refractometer
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We can determine the percentage solids i.e. TSS read directly on scale. Use Abe or Zeiss type refractometers
and for dark colored jams/jelly, use projection type refractometer.

18.2.6.4 Sheeting or ladle test

a) Cold plate test

A drop of boiling liquid from the pan is placed on a plate and allowed to cool. If the jelly is about to set, it
will crinkle when pushed with a finger.

b) Sheet or Flake test

Some portion of a jelly is taken in a large spoon or wooden ladle and cooled slightly. When dropped, if it
falls in the form of flake or sheet, the end point is reached. If the jelly drips like syrup, it is required to
further concentrate.

18.2.6.5 Weighing

The boiling pan is weighed before and after putting the fruit extract and sugar in it. The weight of finished
jelly should be 1.5 times the weight of sugar used. Industry uses specific gravity method, which gives a
reliable indication of the point of readiness.

18.2.7 Storage of jam

The surface of jam is susceptible to mold growth; yeast cannot grow or thrive. There is risk of mold
development and fermentation, with alteration in the taste. Permitted preservatives may be used at levels
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sufficient to inhibit the growth of yeast and molds.

Jam should be stored in a fairly cool place or else some moisture evaporates resulting in surface graining and
shrinkage of jam. It should be stored in a place having RH of ~ 8

Jam Making - equipment required

 Sharp stainless steel knife

 Accurate weighing scales (large (up to 10kg) and small (to weigh g)

 Plastic bowls

 Jelly bags

 Juice extractor

 Mesh strainer and sieves

 pH meter or pH paper (optional)

 Cooker or stove

 Boiling pan (stainless steel or aluminium)

 Aluminium or enamelled pan for sugar syrup

Spoons for measuring

 Wooden spoon for stirring

 Sugar thermometer (if available)

 Refractometer (if available)

 Jars and lids

 Jar filler and capper

 Labels
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JAM MAKING PROCESS

Inspection

Ripe firm fruits received for jam production are sorted and graded according to their color, sensory appeal.
spoiled fruits are removed from the lot.This can be done using hand picking, color sorters.

Washing

for effective washing of fruits, 200 ppm of chlorine can be used in water. pH and temperature should be
maintained, to prevent fruits from getting damaged or bruised. Dump and spray washers can be used in
industries.

Peeling

fruits can be hand peeled as in case of citrus and apple, mechanical peelers and automated peeling machines
containing blades are generally used in industries. Some fruits don’t require peeling. Pitting is sone in fruits
containing hard inner stones.
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Jam Product flow chart

Pulping

Pulping is done to remove seed and core part. Various pulping machines are available in market for fruits
such as mangoes, peaches, tomatoes, bananas, draw berries and celeries etc.

The gap between the sieve and rotor can be adjusted to suit different type of size and qualities of materials to
be pulped.

Addition of sugar

Required amount of sugar and pectin is added to the fruit pulp/juice. Water can be added ,if needed. sugar,
binds to the water molecules and frees up the pectin chains to form their network.

Adding more pectin results in harder jam and using more sugar can make it sticky.
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Boiling

Boiling is the most important step in jam making, which require a lot more patience. After keeping the
above prepared mixture on heat, we need to wait till the sugar dissolves. Slowly, whole room will get filled
by the fruity smell and a network like pectin

A foamy scum may form on the surface of the jam; this is normal and can be removed by adding a little
butter (about 20g) to break the surface tension or by skimming it off with a spoon while your mixture is
cooling.

Addition of citric acid

Specified amount of citric acid is added while boiling itself. We heat the mixture upto 105 C or 68-70%TSS
to ensure proper setting of jam. Sheet test can also be performed to check jam.

Sheet test – small portion of jam is taken in spoon and cooked a bit, and allowed to drop, if product drops as
sheet or flakes, jam is made perfect, otherwise boiling is continued.

Filling into bottles

Jam is poured hot into the sterilized bottles , and it is allowed to cool down by putting into water bath,
waxing by paraffin wax or other waxes can be done, and finally metal caps are vacumn capped on the jars.

Storage

Canned jam should be kept in cool, dry places away from sunlight.

Shelf life of canned jam is around one year.

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JELLY MAKING PROCESS

Jelly Should Have Following Requirements

 Total soluble solids not less than 65%

 Fruit content should not less than 45%

An important consideration in the jelly making is pectin, acid content, sugar content, and end point
detection. Pectin is present in the form of Calcium Pectate which is responsible for firmness in fruits. Under
suitable conditions, pectin forms a gel with sugar and acid. Both immature and over ripe are not suitable for
jelly.

The pH and sugar are important parameters for settling of jelly. The amount of pectin can be determined by
alcohol test or jelmeter test which helps to indicates how many parts of sugar are to be added to one part of
juice. The final jelly should contain at least 0.5 % acid but not more than 1% because more amount of acid
leads to syneresis in jelly. Sugar imparts sweetness as well as body. If the level of sugar is high jelly retains
less water which results in stiff jelly because of dehydration. Prolonged boiling of jelly leads to inversion of
sugar and destruction of pectin. The end point of boiling can be judged by sheet or flake test, drop test, or
temperature test.

The process of jelly making is of 2 types batch process and continuous process

Batch process of Jelly Making

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The ingredients water, fruit juice or fruit pulp are poured into the vessel and then the mixture is stirred. A
separation should be prevented when using a pectin-sugar mixture. The boiling point of the solution is
maintained till pectin is added. The mixture is boiled till total soluble solids are reached. Then it is cooled to
80℃. And flavor color, is added at the end of the process.

Continuous Process

In continuous production instead of pectin powder pectin solution is used which is s mixed with sugar, sugar
syrup, water and fruit juice or fruit pulp and are heated to dissolve the ingredients and mixed in vacuum
station.

Flow Chart for Jelly Making

Problems in jelly making -

 Failure to set- more amount of sugar, lack of acid /pectin, coking below or above end point leads to
settling problem in jelly.

 Cloudy or foggy jellies are due to non clarified extract, immature fruit for jelly making, scum is not
removed.
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 An excessive amount of sugar leads to the formation of crystals in jelly.

 Syneresis of jelly is caused due to excess of acid, low concentration of sugar, fermentation of sugars etc

PREPARATION OF MARMALADE
This is a fruit jelly in which slices of the fruit (or) its peel are suspended. The term is
generally used for products made from citrus fruits like oranges and lemons in which shredded
peel is used as the suspended material. Citrus marmalade's are classified into (1) jelly
marmalade (2) jam marmalade. The FPO specifications for marmalade are TSS - 65% and fruit juice - 45%
of the prepared product.
Ingredients
Pectin extract - 1 litre

Sugar - 750 gm

Shredded peel - 62 gm

Jelly marmalade

prepared from the clarified pectin extract.

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Process
Ripe fruits → Washing → Peeling outer yellow portion (Flavedo) thinly → Cutting yellow portion into fine
shreds (1.9 - 2.5 cm long and 0.8 – 0.12 cm thick) -0.45 cm Cutting of 0.3thick slices of peeled fruit (or)
crushing into pulp in a greater → Boiling (in 2-3 times its weight of H2O for 40-60 min.) Straining the
extract t) → Addition Testing for pectin content of sugar (as required) Cooking to 103-105oC (Continuous
stirring) Addition of shreds (shredded peel boiled for 10 to 15 min. in several changes of water for softening
and removing bitterness and added @ about 62 g per kg of extract) Boiling till (continuous stirring) Testing
for end p -88°C with continuous stirring) Flavouring Storage at ambient temperature.
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Jam Marmalade
The method of preparation is practically the same as that for jelly marmalade. In this case the pectin extract
of fruit is not clarified and the whole pulp is used. Sugar is added according to the weight of fruit, generally
in the proportion of 11. The pulp – sugar mixture is sugar mixture is cooked till the TSS content reaches
65%.

CONCLUSION
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The Indian food industry presents a very large opportunity to every stakeholder. This is primarily driven by
a robust consumer demand, the changing nature of the Indian consumer, who is more informed and willing
to try new products; and the strong production base of the country. Needless to add, the several gaps in the
current production and delivery systems actually present a huge opportunity for the growth of companies
willing to bet long term in this sector however, the growth of food processing companies has been
sub"optimal because of high cost, low level of productivity, high wastage and lack of competitiveness of
Indian food products in the global market. Therefore, to fully leverage the growth potential of the sector,
current challenges that are being faced by the industry need to be properly addressed and steps need to be
taken to remove the bottlenecks hampering the sectoral growth. FI77I survey has thus acted as a first step in
identifying these challenges, thus providing a road map for all the stakeholders to work on, and thus
contributing in realizing the immense potential of this in dust

UNIT III SOCIO ECONOMIC SURVEY

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CONTENTS:

 INTRODUCTION

 SITE DESCRIPTION

 CHHARBA 2011 CENSUS DETAILS

 BENCH MARK SURVEY SCHEDULE

 FORMAT OF SOCIOECONOMIC SURVEY FORM

 INDIVIDUAL FARMER SURVEY OF SOME FAMILIES

 CONCLUSION

INTRODUCTION
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Socio-Economics (also known as Socio-economics or social Economic) is the social science that studies
how economic activity affects social processes. In general it analyzes how societies progress, stagnate or
regress because of their local or regional economy, or the global economy. In other words, to put simply,
Socio-economic study is the study in which focus on social status denotes age, education, family size, social
participation ( Panchayat , coop society, social worker, caste leader and youth club) source of
communication (informal , formal sources) and source contact (block personnel, village pardhan , research
station, developmental agencies and so on. Economic status denotes housing, size of holding occupation,
land operation (orchard / paddy land/ irrigation facilities/ canal / well/ tank/ (tube-well) farm power, farm
implements, livestock, material possession etc.

Socio-economic study of village is to observe inter- relationships between environmental and socio-
economic Conditions, in certain areas that includes forest, rivers, climatic conditions etc.

Its aim at the finding of innovative solutions for socially, economically or environmentally based issues and
to satisfy the needs of members and users which have been ignored or inadequately fulfilled by the private
or public sectors.

OBJECTIVES

 To assess the social status of the village i.e. education, heal care, rural poverty, alleviation,
agricultural status, cattle rearing, forest produce, employment etc.
 To study the relationship between villagers and nearby forest.
 To study about the specific constraints related to the development of village.
 To know about the dependency of villagers on farming and about the types of crops, cultural
practices, crop compositions etc.
 To suggest certain measures to improve the socio economic conditions as well as the overall
development of the village.
 To know the attitude of the parents towards the education of their children’s.

How to know the socio-economic status?

The socio economic status of the village/community/farmers is known through various tools used for data
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collections. The choice of method is influenced by the data collections strategy, the type of variable, the
accuracy required, the collection point and the skill of the enumerator. Links between a variable, its source
and practical methods for its collections can help in choosing appropriate methods. The main data collection
methods are as follows:

CENSUS

Complete Enumeration of the population which is done in population census. This is not applicable in social
science as it requires lot of time, money and man power.

Questionnaires

From which are completed and returned by respondents. An inexpensive method that is useful where literacy
rates are high and respondents are cooperative.

Interviews

From which are completed through an interview with the respondent. More expensive than questionnaires,
but they are better for more complex questions, low literacy or less cooperation.

Direct observatives

Making direct measurements the most accurate method for any variables, but is often expensive.

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)

This is one of the techniques of data collections PRA has evolved and spread in early 1990 has been
described as a growing family of approaches and method to enable local(rural or urban)people to express
,enhance and share and analyze their knowledge of life and condition to plan and to act.

SITE DESCRIPTION

VILLAGE : CHARBA/ CHHARBA

BLOCK : SAHASPUR

DISTRICT : DEHRADUN

STATE : UTTARAKHAND

LANGUAGE : HINDI, GARHWALI, PUNJABI

ELEVATION : 648 MSL

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PIN CODE : 248197

Fig: Google map of Chharba.

Chharba 2011 Census Details

Charba Local Language is Hindi. Chharba Village Total population is 7268 and number of houses are 1425.
Female Population is 47.9%. Village literacy rate is 66.1% and the Female Literacy rate is 29.1%.
Population, as per census data 2011

Census Parameter Census Data

Total Population 7268

Total No of Houses 1425

Female Population % 47.9 % ( 3478)

Total Literacy rate % 66.1 % ( 4804)

Female Literacy rate 29.1 % ( 2112)

Scheduled Tribes Population % 0.3 % ( 20)

Scheduled Caste Population % 5.8 % ( 420)

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Working Population % 26.6 %

Child(0 -6) Population by 2011 1013

Girl Child(0 -6) Population % by 2011 47.1 % ( 477)

BENCH MARK SURVEY SCHEDULE

1. Name of village :- Charba

2. Name of the Pradhan :-SEEMA DEVI
3. Block :- Sahaspur
4. District :- Dehradun
5. State :- Uttarakhand
6. Distance from :-
a. Nearest forest : 4km.
b. Nearest market : 5km.
7. Facilities in village:-

Sl. No. FACILITY AVAILABILITY REMARK

A. Primary Health Centre Yes[1] General
B. Veterinary Hospital No Required
C. Water Supply Yes Gravity water
D. Seed Store Yes[Several] General
E. Plant Protection Unit No Not much necessary
F. Bank No Not required
G. Anganwadi Centre Yes[2] Not required

Other facilities:

 Subsidies in seeds and fertilizers from government.

 Subsidy for plantation.
 Almost 24x7 electricity.
 Irrigation by canal.
 Self help groups active.
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Village Chharba is located in the Dehradun district and the Block of Sahaspur. Chharba village is
approximately 60km from the main Dehradun city. Village is 80% surrounded by forest which includes the
important tree species like: Eucalyptus globulus, Syzyium cumini (Jamun), Grevelia robusta (Silver oak),
Grewia optiva (Bhimal) etc. Different types of wild Animals: Leopard, Rabbit, Wild boar, Monkey etc.

Sampling procedure:

Simple random sampling technique was adopted for selecting the samples.

 Firstly a complete list of households of the village Chharba prepared.

 Total numbers of families were 200 and selected some families as sampling units.
 Thus a total number of 30 households were selected randomly for study.

S. no Category No of Farmer Average land

Holding
(Bigha)
1. Landless 2 0
2. Marginal 9 4
3. Small 9 8
4. Medium 7 10
5. Large 3 15

Social Status of Villagers at Village (Chharba):

Total number of Households Surveyed 30

Average Family members 6
Literacy Rate 60%
House type 60% Kaccha
Electricity 90%
Water Supply 90%
Toilet facility 100%
Religion category distribution 60% (Hindu) & 40%( Muslim)
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Cropping pattern:

Rabi Crops Zaid Kharif Crops

Wheat (Triticum aestivum) Vegetables like Brinjal, Paddy rice (oryza sativa),
ladyfinger etc. Maize, Black gram
Barseem (Trifolium
alexandrinum) Fodder

 Wheat and Rice were the most important crops cultivated by the farmers at Charba village.
 FYM was mostly used as fertilizer for the better working of soil as well as growth of the crop.
 Other than this urea was the first choice used by the farmers.
 Energy Consumption: Most of the households were dependent on the LPG.
 Than firewood plays the main role which was obtained from nearby Forest and utilized for cooking
as well as heating purpose.

SOURCE OF INCOME EDUCATION

*Govt. JOB : 20% * Illiterate : 15%

*Private Job : 32% *Below high school : 15%

*Self Employed : 18% *Upto high school : 25%

*Farming : 12% *Intermediate : 28%

*Agriculture + job : 18% *Graduate & above : 17%

FORMAT OF SOCIO ECONOMIC SURVEY FORM

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SURVEY FORM

*NAME OF THE RESPONDER :

*GENDER :
*AGE :
* RELIGION :
*NO. OF FAMILY MEMBER :
*OCCUPATION :
*MONTHLY INCOME :
*AGRICULTURAL AREA :
*MAIN CROPS GROWN :
*TYPE OF HOUSE :
*MACHINERIES/ACCESSORIES OWNED :
*NO. OF LIVESTOCK :
*FODDER COLLECTED FROM :
*GRAZING ACTIVITIES :
*FORESTRY/AGRICULTURAL INSTRUMENTS :
*SOURCE OF ENERGY :
*FUEL WOOD COLLECTED FROM :
*DISTANCE OF FOREST :

INDIVIDUAL FARMER SURVEY OF SOME FAMILIES:

Family no.1

 Name of the responder: Rekhadevi

 Gender: Female
 Age:45
 Religion: Hindu
 No. of Family members:4(1-M,1-F,2-Childerns)
 Occupation: shopkeeper
 Monthly income: 6,000
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 Agricultural area: 3.5Bigah

 Main Crops grown: Wheat, sugarcane
 Type of house: pakka
 Machineries/ Accessories Owned: TV, refrigerator
 No. of livestocks: 1 cow
 Fodder collected from: Market and own-land
 Grazing activities: Nill
 Forestry/Agricultural instruments: Khurpi, sickle,hammer
 Source of energy: Wood, Gas, electricity.
 Fuel wood collected from: Market
 Distance of forest: 4.

Family no.2

 Name of the responder: Parvatidevi

 Gender: Female
 Age:44
 Religion: Hindu
 No. of Family members:3(1-M,2-F)
 Occupation: farmer
 Monthly income: 5,000
 Agricultural area:4Bigah
 Main Crops grown: Wheat, Rice
 Type of house: pakka
 Machineries/ Accessories Owned: Bike, Refrigerator,TV
 No. of livestocks: 2 cows
 Fodder collected from: Own-land
 Grazing activities: Nill
 Forestry/Agricultural instruments: hammer, sickle.
 Source of energy: Wood, Gas, Fuel.
 Fuel wood collected from: forest
 Distance of forest: 2km.
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Family no.3

 Name of the responder: Maya Devi

 Gender:Female
 Age:40
 Religion: Hindu
 No. of Family members:5(3-M,2-F)
 Occupation: Farmer
 Monthly income: 5,000
 Agricultural area:2 bigha
 Main Crops grown:wheat,rice,maize
 Type of house: pakka
 Machineries/ Accessories Owned: Bike, Refrigerator
 No. of livestocks: 1 cow
 Fodder collected from: Own-land
 Grazing activities: Nil
 Forestry/Agricultural instruments: khurpi,sickle
 Source of energy: Wood, Gas, Fuel.
 Fuel wood collected from: forest
 Distance of forest: 2km.

Family no. 4

 Name of the responder: Santoshbala

 Gender: Male
 Age:56
 Religion:Hindu
 No. of Family members:4(2-M,2-F)
 Occupation: farmer
 Monthly income: 7,000
 Agricultural area: 9 bigha
 Main Crops grown: rice,wheat
 Type of house: pakka
 Machineries/ Accessories Owned: Bike,TV
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 No. of livestocks: 2 cows

 Fodder collected from: Own land and market
 Grazing activities: Nill
 Forestry/Agricultural instruments: khurpi,sickle
 Source of energy: Wood, Gas, Fuel, wood
 Fuel wood collected from: Own-land
 Distance of forest: 2.5km.

Family no. 5

 Name of the responder: Harikumari

 Gender: Female
 Age:75
 Religion: Hindu
 No. of Family members:7(4-M,3-F)
 Occupation: labour
 Monthly income: 4,000
 Agricultural area: Nil
 Main Crops grown: Nil
 Type of house: kacha
 Machineries/ Accessories Owned:TV,bike
 No. of livestocks: Nil
 Fodder collected from: Nil
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 Grazing activities: Nill

 Forestry/Agricultural instruments: Nil
 Source of energy: Wood, Gas, Fuel.
 Fuel wood collected from: forest
 Distance of forest: 1km.

Family no. 6

 Name of the responder: Reena

 Gender: Female
 Age:39
 Religion: Hindu
 No. of Family members:5(3-M,2-F)
 Occupation: private job
 Monthly income: 8,000
 Agricultural area: 6 Bigha
 Main Crops grown: Rice,Wheat,maize
 Type of house: pakka
 Machineries/ Accessories Owned: Refrijerator,bike
 No. of livestocks: 1 buffalo
 Fodder collected from: Agricultural Land.
 Grazing activities: Nill
 Forestry/Agricultural instruments: Khurpi, sickle
 Source of energy: Wood, Gas, Fuel, electricity.
 Fuel wood collected from: forest
 Distance of forest: 3KM.

CONCLUSION

From the survey and analysis of this information collected from the village , it is cleared that the economic
and living conditions of the people of Charba is average except some families who are quite developed but
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the attitude of the people towards the society is commendable. Allied sectors of the livestock & apiculture
are growing quite well. Educational and productive steps should be introduced form overall development
and well being of the farmers. More development can be done if Govt. provides proper subsidies for some
parts of the cultivation .

In conclusion we can say that” Socio economic survey” is an integral part of the education system. It
actually help us to realize the conditions of the society, living standards of people. So the” Socio-economic
Survey” lays a pivotal role in our educational system.
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UNIT IV APICULTURE

CONTENTS:

 INTRODUCTION

 ORGANIZATION OF HONEY BEE

 LIFE HISTORY OF HINEY BEE

 BEEKEEPING METHODS

 BEEKEEPING EQUIPMENTS
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 COMPONENTS OF HIVE

 USE OF HONEY AND ECONOMY OF BEEKEEPING

 INSECT ,PEST, & DISEASE & MANAGEMENT

 WHY BEEKEEPING

 CONCLUSION

INTRODUCTION

Apiculture denotes the scientific management of honey bees for commercial production of honey and other
bee products. The utility of honey bees to man has been known from prehistoric times. The bees have been
mentioned in the Vedas, the Ramayana, the Quran and other Holy books. The carvings of honey bees, their
combs and their hives are found on the tombs, coffins, crowns and maces of kings and on the coins of both
ancient and modern empires. Honey bees had been used as a weapon in the World War 1 and the mysterious
property of bee venom of relieving muscular pain has also been known for a long time. Beekeeping in India
has remained behind countries like USA, Canada, Europe, Africa, Australia and New Zealand.

Honey bees belong to the family Apidae of the order Hymenoptera. India is a unique country where
all the four species of honey bees have been found foraging under natural conditions. Two of them are wild
and make their nests in the open. They are Apis Dorsata Fabricius and Apis florae Fabricius. The other two
makes their nest in the open and can be domesticated to live in hives. They are Apis Cerana Fabricius and
Apis Mellifera Linnaeus.

i. Apis Dorsata.It is also called the rock bee or giant bee. These bees are found all over India from the
hilly tracts (1200m) to the plains. The bees are bigger in size than the other bees, measuring about
20mm in length. It builds a huge comb at the face of the rock, on branches of big trees and
sometimes on walls and buildings. The comb sometimes measures 1.5-2.0 meters across and each
colony of bees is capable of storing 20-40 kg honey.
ii. Apis Florae. It is also called the little bee and is about 7mm in length. It does not like darkness and
therefore, forms its comb in the open place, e.g. in the bushes, hedges, caves, chimney, corner of
roofs etc. It builds a small comb and only 250g honey is obtained at a time.
iii. Apis Cerana. It is also called the Indian bee or Eastern honey bee and is found everywhere in India
and its nature is quite different from rock bee, being mild in temperament and can be domesticated
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easily. It is about 15mm in size. They build several combs side by side and parallel to each other but
are smaller than the rock bee. The honey and pollens are stored in the side combs while brood
rearing is restricted to the central one. On an average, 3-4 kg honey is found from a comb annually.
iv. Apis Mellifera. It is also called the European honey bee or the Italian honey bee and was introduced
in India in 1962 by Prof. A.S Atwal. The behavior and appearance of A. Mellifera is similar to A.
Cerana. The average yield of A. Mellifera is 20-25 kg per colony, but elite beekeepers have an
average honey yield of 50 kg per colony.

Fig: Apis dorsata fig: Apis florae

Fig: Apis cerana indica fig: Apis mellifera

ORGANIZATION OF BEE COLONY

The honey bees are social insects and live in colonies with a highly organized system of division of labour.
Many combs are found in a colony in which the members of the family used to live. A family consists of
35,000 to 70,000 members, which includes a queen, 200-300 drones and workers.

Queen: Every colony has a queen which is the mother and the only sexually developed female. All the
members of the family are the products of the queen and so it is called mother queen. She mates the drone,
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the male bees in the air once or more in her life-time and lays eggs throughout her life. A queen bee is 2-3
times bigger than a worker bee measuring about 15-20mm in length. She can be distinguished by her
extended abdomen and provided with a combined sting and ovipositor. She lays 800 to 1200 eggs per day. A
queen lives for 2 to 5 years and when it is weak or unable to lay eggs, it is replaced by one of the daughter
queens.

Drone: The drone is the male bee, the main function of which is to mate with the queen. It is smaller than
the queen and measures 15-17 mm in length. Drones are not permanent members of the colony. They are
driven out of the hive before the onset of monsoon and winter. They die due to starvation and are raised only
when new queens are reared.

Workers: Under developed females which are produced from the fertilized eggs but remain sterile due to
non-availability of royal jelly are called workers. It is smaller in size than the queen and has a sting on the
terminal end of abdomen. The sting of the worker bee is a barbed structure which gets pulled out of her body
when she stings. The bee dies as a result if pulling of the sting.

They are responsible for all the work and for the maintenance and welfare of colony such as building
of comb with wax and its maintenance; collection of honey, pollen and water for the use of the colony; to
guard the colony against enemies; to take care of the queen and feeding of royal-jelly; to maintain the
temperature of hive by cooling and heating the comb as per requirement and to secrete the royal-jelly;
prepare a ‘bee-bread’ and to distribute these foods to grubs.

Fig : queen bee fig: drone bee

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Fig: worker bee

LIFE-HISTORY OF HONEY BEES

The eggs are laid by the queen and when a colony wants to produce a new queen, the special cells are
constructed at the lower border of the brood comb. On these cells, single egg is laid by the queen, which
hatches in 3 days. The newly hatched are fed with royal-jelly. The grub is fully developed in 5-6 days and
the queen cell is capped where grub changes into pupa and after 1 week adults come out by biting the cap of
queen cell.

Nuptial flight: After 2-3 days, the queen daughter takes nuptial flight accompanied by hundreds of drones
during the day. The male soon dies after copulation and the mated queen returns to the comb.

Ovipositor: After sometime, the queen daughter starts laying eggs and is called as queen mother. The eggs
hatch in 3-4 days.

Grub: From the fertilized eggs, queen and workers and from the unfertilized eggs drones are born. They are
fed wit royal-jelly for 2-3 days. The grub period lasts for 5-6 days.

Pupa: Full grown grub forms a cocoon and pupates inside the cell. The pupa period lasts for 7-14 days
depending upon the adults to be produced.
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Fig: life cycle of honey bee

BEEKEEPING METHODS

Rearing the bees in artificial hives is known as beekeeping or apiculture. In India, the beekeeping industry
started with the designing of a small hive suitable for A. Cerana by Rev. Father Newton in 1910. This hive
named ewton Hive’ is still popular for keeping A. Cerana. In earlier times, people after wrapping the blanket
on the body or after smoking at night, collected honey from the comb. This was a crude method. After
sometime, people thought to keep the honey bees and many villagers took interest in keeping honey bees
and provided various types of hives in their houses.

Thus, beekeeping can be dived into primitive and modern methods:

A. Primitive or Indigenous Methods

These methods can be divided into two categories:
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1) Fixed type: providing a receptable in the wall of the house with an entrance and observation
holes.
2) Movable type: providing a basket, empty boxes, hollowed logs, bamboo, mud, pipes, earthen
pots, etc- anything that can protect bees from the sun and rain.
B. Modern Method or Frame Hive Method
Frames are fitted with movable frames on which the bees are persuaded to build their combs. They
are usually composed of several boxes, one on top of the other, in
which hive frames are suspended. The lower boxes are used for holding the brood and the upper ones
are used for collection of honey, pollen and propolis.
The artificial comb was first introduced by Rev. L.L. Langstroth in 1851 in America. In India, during
1910 Rev. Father Newton designed a small hive suitable for A. Cerana.

Fig: colony of Apis cerana indica

BEEKEEPING EQUIPMENT

The following equipments are required for beekeeping:

a. Beehive – they are wooden boxes having two parts: upper comb chamber and lower brood chamber.
A movable frame hive consists of the following parts: stand, floor board, alighting board, brood
chamber, hive frames, queen excluder, supers and covers.
b. Comb foundation
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c. Smoker
d. Bee gloves
e. Scraper
f. Hive tool
g. Division board feeders
h. Wire embedders
i. Comb cutter
j. Bee brush
k. Cold uncapping knife
l. Steam uncapping knife
m. Uncapping basket
n. Bee veil
o. Honey extractor
p. Wire entrance guard
q. Queen cell protector
r. Swarm- catching basket
s. Drone trap
t. Bee escape
u. Queen cage
v. Dummy board
w. Overall

Apis Cerana

It is also called the Indian bee or Eastern honey bee and is found everywhere in India and its nature is quite
different from rock bee, being mild in temperament and can be domesticated easily. It is about 15mm in
size. These bees like to live in dark places and, therefore, establish their combs in closed covered places
such as hollowed trunks, burrows in the ground, hollowed place in walls, unused boxes etc. They build
several combs side by side and parallel to each other but are smaller than the rock bee. The honey and
pollens are stored in the side combs while brood rearing is restricted to the central one. On an average, 3-4
kg honey is found from a comb annually. Generally, they do not migrate to leave their old combs. Two types
of Indian bees, viz. Plains type and hills types are found.
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Fig. Apis Cerana colony.

COLONY MULTIPLICATION

Increasing the number of colonies is one of the management practices that help in increasing the production
in an apiary. A bee-keeper aims in increasing the number by a few colonies. This is often done by capturing
swarms or division of colonies in the apiary. In here, queen cells are utilized or after taking out a division
along with the queen, the remaining colony is left queenless. It gets settled after one of the virgin queens
emerges from the queen cell and gets mated and starts laying eggs.

A lot of planning –both time scheduling and material management has to be made for efficient colony
multiplication, taking into consideration the existing colony number, weather conditions, need for other
management like migration, forage availability, available man-power etc. One of the important
considerations is the total number of queen bees required for requeening the original stock and for the new
colonies that will be produced in the multiplication programme. Queen rearing is the first step to produce
new colonies. When the queen cells are ready for distribution, nuclei are prepared by taking out 2-3 brood
frames from strong colonies. A small proportion of the young bee population is also taken from these
colonies for stocking the nuclei. Mature queen cells are distributed among the nuclei. When the queen
emerges, it mates and starts laying egg and therefore new colonies are formed.

Colony multiplication can be undertaken only during periods of abundant availability of nectar and pollen,
so that the colonies grow in strength. Availability of forage is also necessary for atleast a month after the
nuclei are formed so that the colonies have sufficient time to establish. The farming and orchard or
plantation in the country offer these condition of forage availability continuously for over two months. Many
tropical crops in India pollen and several oilseed and pulse crops also provide nectar and pollen. In places
where nectar flow is not sufficient, stimulative sugar feeding is given to develop colonies to the required
strength. In the major nectar flow areas it is often not possible to harvest a honey crop after undertaking
colony multiplication.
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Advantages of rearing Apis Cerana over exotic breeds:-

 Apis Cerana is gentle to handle, industrious and well-adapted to the ecological conditions of
South-South East Asia.
 It is less susceptible than Apis Mellifera to Nosema disease, not seriously affected by Varroa
and is less prone to predatory wasps.
 Chemicals are not required in beekeeping in A. Cerana to control diseases, parasites and
predators, unlike in beekeeping with A. Mellifera.
 For pollination purposes, A. Cerana is superior to A. Mellifera in the small holdings of these
regions because of its shorter flight range and longer foraging hours than the European
honey bee.
 Beekeeping with A. Cerana is a traditional occupation and forms an integral part of social
and cultural heritage of rural and tribal communities in the country. It is also known as an
environmental occupation.
 Colonies of A. Cerana are smaller than those of A. Mellifera which facilitates there easy
handling.

FIG. Cutting of combs to fit the brood frame

Rearing techniques of Indian bee (Apis cerana indica)

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History of rearing of Apis cerana indica:

In Asia, Indian bee has been domesticated for 3,000 years. The earliest record of Apis cerana
beekeeping was found in china. The modern bee keeping and rearing of Apis mellifera have been
introduced for the USA with cerana in china. Modern techniques were started to increase the colony
production, to select for high honey yield to control bee disease to rear queens and divide colonies
commercially.

Techniques:
 Grafting: All methods that stimulate the colony to build queen cells from the Wax cell cups take
advantages of the basic behavior by Which colony produce emergency cells in the absence of a
queen. A. cerana rearing uses a frame with 1-3 bars, which have 10-20 cells cups mounted at
intervals.
 In double grafting” a young worker larva is grafted (transferred) as usual into a queen cell and the
next day its replaced with another young larva. When cells are double grafted care should be
exercised in the second transfer. The body of the first larvae must be discarded carefully.
 Unless the larvae are removed without materially changing the consistency of the jelly and start over
again, thus eliminating any beneficial effects of the double grafting.
 One to three days before the queen cells are ripe, a queenless nucleus or small colony, one queen is
then placed in each such colony.

 Control Mating: Instrumental insemination is important in selective breeding because it is only

way that a breeder can completely control which crones mate with a queen. Instrumental
insemination should not be seen as a replacement for natural mating, but as an additional tools that
gives a breeder absolute control over the mating. To increase the productivity of A. cerena most
efficiently, some degree of control mating must be assured. The optimum methods of instrumental
insemination of this species can be worked out only when the details of its reproduction and details
of its mating behavior are better known.

 Queen production under natural conditions: Its possible to secure a few queen cells from a colony
which is preparing to replace an old or failing queen. If all the supersedure cells are removed the
colony will make others and the old queen does not disturb them. Occasionally it is found that an old
queen any young queen living together in the same colony.

Components of Beehive:
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1. Stand
2. Bottom board
3. Brood Chamber
4. Brood Frame
5. Queen Excluder
6. Honey or super chamber
7. Top cover.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SOME BEEKEEPING EQUIPMENTS

1. Comb Foundation Sheet: It is a sheet of bee wax on both sides of which are depressions or
marks of the shape and pattern of the workers brood cells. Its prepared on the comb
foundation mill. The mill is fitted to the frame, supported by the metal wires fixed and
tightens horizontally.

2. Queen Excluder: To obtain a pure honey form extraneous matter it is necessary to separate
the broodiness form the surplus honey stores. This is done with the help of queen excluder
which is perforated sheet of Zinc or round wire which assembles together 3.7mm apart.
 For Apis cerana, The worker with their thorax varying from 3.33 mm-3.50mm can pass through the
perforation but not the queens with their thorax varying form 4.40-4.50mm.
 The wire entrance guard and the traps drones and also based on the principles of the queen excluder.
The former restrict the queen inside the hive and the later after routing the drone into upper chamber
trap them in.
3. Honey extractor:
 It is a hand or motor operated centrifugal machine with revolving chambers, into
which the frame is fitted. As the handle is worked, Honey flows out of the frames by
the centrifugal force without breaking It. So that it can be used again in future.
4. Uncapping Knife: It is a flat sharp edged knife used for cutting the wax capping of honey
sealed honey cells. The frames are then placed in the honey extractor.
5. Bee Veil: It’s a head veil made of mosquito-netting and used to protect the face from the
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stings of the bees.

6. Smokers: It’s used during the inspection of the hives. The bees are subdued when the
entrance of the hive is puffed with the smoker generated by a bellows type smoker. It
becomes easier to handle the bees.
7. Gloves: They are needed for beginner to protect the hands from the bee stings, but the
experienced bee keepers can handle the bees without gloves.

Fig: queen excluder fig: honey extractor

Fig: smoker

Important Products obtained from Bee Keeping:

1. Honey: It’s a good source of vitamin and sugars. It’s antiseptic, blood purifier and also used to treat
gastric problems.
2. Bee venom: It’s poisonous and also known as apitoxin. Its used in the treatment of arthritis and for
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desensitizing people allergic to bee stings.

3. Bee wax: It’s used by the honey bees as a foundation for selling large spaces in honey comb. Its also
used in shoe and furniture polishes as well as in candle making.
4. Royal Jelly: It’s secreted by 12 days old workers bees and mainly used for the nutrition and
development of the queen bees. It’s used as medicine for ulcers, asthma, pre menstrual syndrome,
and menopausal symptoms and also used in skin care and cosmetics.
5. Pollen: It’s a grain of flowers collected by the bees which contain all 22 amino acid, vitamin,
minerals and enzyme. Pollen has high food value and large market for human and veterinary
medicines.

Use of honey:

1. As Food: it is a rich, energy giving food and with milk forms a perfect and complete food, it
provides ready energy and is given us the first food for the new born infants. It is so highly nutritious
that one kg of honey is estimated to be equivalent to 5kg of milk, 1.5kg of meat, 40 oranges. It can
be used with coffee, tea or milk in place of sugar. Honey mixed with butter and curds can be used
with chapatti, biscuits etc.
2. As Medicines: It’s used as a carrier in many Ayurvedic and Unani medicines. It’s by itself used as a
laxative and a blood purifier and as a curative for sore, ulcers in tongue and sore throat etc. Regular
use of honey is advocated for stomach and intestinal ulcers, being potentially alkaline as Fruits, it
does not produce acidosis.
3. In Religious Functions: honey is use in many religious rites.

Economics of Beekeeping:

Bee keeping is a non land based profitable vocation. In the modern agricultural system honeybees can be
considered as one of the important inputs for crop production. Beekeeping does not required particular land
and workers. Even the women and teenagers school goers of the family can look after the colonies.
Considering ten colonies as an unit and average honey yield 10kg/colony for Indian bee, 20kg for western
bee and the market value of honey Rs. 150/kg, then the profit generated from honey will be Rs. 20,000/- for
western bee as worked out by AICARP on honeybee, AUU, Jorhat centre.

 Oval, the ripe cells are then separated. Small and poorly formed cells are discarded. The cells are
placed between layers of padded cloth to protect the queen in the cells and carried to the nucleus or
prepared mating hive.
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INSECT PEST AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

Natural enemies-

1. WAX MOTH : There are two species namely

GREAYER WAX MOTH (Galleria mellonella) And LESSER WAX MOTH (Achroia grisella). These
moths make silken tunnel in comb under the cover of which they feed upon the wax. During severe
infestation the comb is covered with silken tunnel and faecal matter of the caterpillar due to which the
bees become incapable of guarding against them & they abandon the nest.
2. SPHINGED (Acherontia spp.): it is also called honey robber. it sucks the honey from the comb with
the help of proboscis.
3. BLACK ANTS
4. BIRDS

Fig: robber honey bee fig: wax moth

DISEASES

1. NOSEMA: caused by protozoan Nosema apis , which attacks stomach cause dysentery , infected
bees are unable to fly more than a few meters, their stomach gets swollen and become white in color
Control: provide running water and full of sunlight, sterilize the brood boxes and frame hives with
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40% formalin
2. AMOEBIC DISEASE: Caused by protozoan, Malphighamoeba mellificae, which infect the
malphigian tubules and cause dysentery.
CONTROL: Avoid winter brood rearing, provide running water and sunlight.
3. ACARINE DISEASE: caused by parasitic mite Acarapis woodi, which enters into the trachea,
and feed upon the body fluids, eggs are laid in tracheas and get clogged, finally kills the bee.
CONTROL: by keeping cotton soaked in methyl salycilate inside the hive in a flat tin with
perforated lid.
4. SEPTICEMEA: caused by bacteria Bacillus apisepticus, which is spread through contaminated
water getting into the breeding organ.
5. STONE BROOD DISEASES: caused by Aspergillus flavus, infection takes place by germination
of the spores in the alimentary canal of the larva.
CONTROL: The combs and equipment should be sterilized with formaldehyde fumes.
6. CHLAK BROOD DISEASE: caused by Pericystis apis, in which the larva converted into chalk
white masses of mycelium.
CONTROL: In case of an outbreak the comb should be destroyed and bees shifted to new place.
Dampness and poor ventilation should be removed.

Fig: NOSEMA DISEASE FIG: SEPTICEMEA DISEASE

FIG: STONE BROOD DISEASE

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Why Beekeeping?

Apiculture and Agriculture –

1. Introduction: Beekeeping is a very fascinating occupation. It can be practiced equally by men, women,
grown up children and even by physically handicapped and old persons. The investment required is low, and
the economic returns are comparatively very high. Beekeeping does not bring any pressure on agriculture
land. It produces honey, beeswax, pollen, propolis from the flowers which otherwise dry up in nature and go
waste. Beekeeping is a decentralized industry and does not displace persons from their villages. If conditions
are favorable, level of beekeeping can be increased to semi-commercial or commercial level. Though the
honeybees are best known for the honey they produce, their economic role in nature is to pollinate hundreds
and thousands of flowering plants and assure seed or fruit set. Honeybees thus play very important role in
cross pollinating various agricultural and horticultural crops and increase their yield per unit area and
improve their quality. Agricultural scientists in America and Europe have estimated that value of the
increased crop yields due to honeybee pollination is several times more than the value of the honey and
beeswax the honeybees produce.

2. Honeybees and Forests: Honeybees and forests have been associated with each other for several million
years. Honeybees are an integral part of forests and their ecology. A healthy bee fauna is an indication of
healthy forest and its natural balance. This is so because bees and flowering plants have evolved together as
one biological unit over past million years. Hills and adjacent transitional belts and hills and surrounding
agricultural belts having mixture of forests and agriculture are of the unique biological wealth that could be
converted into economic wealth and can offer livelihood on a substantial basis. These are the best areas for
promotion of beekeeping industry. Various development projects in the country, however, affected
beekeeping industry adversely due to deforestation, increasing land-use for agriculture, urbanization,
tourism development etc. All these factors reduce significantly the bee forage potential. It is necessary to
check this deterioration trend of the industry if this important income resource to the rural and tribal
population depending upon forests for their livelihood has to be maintained. This is all the more necessary in
view of the importance of honeybees as cross pollinators of various agricultural and horticultural crops.
Jamun, Soap nut, Shikekai, Amala, Harad, Karanj, Neem, Drumstick, Eucalyptus are a few plant species to
mention which have duel utility. The plant species should be such selected that there is a staggered
flowering and flora is available to the bees almost round the year. This will support insect population,
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resulting into vibrant, lively and dynamic nature of the forests.

3. Role of Honeybees in Agriculture and Horticulture Until mid-20th century, honeybees were equated
with the production of honey and beeswax. But since past 3-4 decades, utilizing honeybees to pollinate large
number of agricultural and horticultural crops to increase per acre yield has become a routine practice in
many developed countries. Many commercial beekeepers in America prefer to provide honeybee colonies on
rental basis for pollination service rather than to take honey production. Beekeepers in California earn about
$150 per bee colony per month as a rental for providing bee colonies for pollination service. According to
Agricultural Scientists in U.S.A., value of increased crop yields due to honeybee pollination is 10 to 15
times more than the value of honey and beeswax the honeybees produce.

4. Crops Benefited by Bee Pollination: Experiments on effect of bee pollination on various crops were
conducted by Central Bee Research and Training Institute and various Agricultural Universities under All
India Coordinated Project on Honeybee Research and Training (ICAR). There is a good data available on
this subject from abroad also. A cross section of the cross fertile crops, self sterile crops with different
degree of self-sterility and even self-fertile crops benefited by bee pollination is summarized below. Oilseed:
White mustard, Rape, Toria, Sarsoo, Lahi, Safflower, Sunflower, Linseed, Niger, Gingelly, etc. Orchard
Crops: Apple varieties, pears, plums, cherry, strawberry, raspberry, Litchi, citrus varieties, grapes,
cucumbers, squashes, melons, Almond, peach, guava, gooseberry. Legume seeds: Alfalfa, berseem and
other clovers, vetches, broad beans, dwarf beans. Vegetable seeds: radish, cabbage, turnip, carrot, onion,
cauliflower, gourds.

5. Integration of Apiculture and Agriculture Horticulture: Nearly 70 percent of the cultivated crops all
over the world are cross fertile and depend on insects like honeybees for pollination. Dwindling of
population of useful pollinating insects has become a global problem. This is due to pollution of water, air
and indiscriminate use of insecticides. Of all the pollinating insects, honeybees are considered as the most
efficient and reliable crop pollinators. Honeybees and flowering plants are interdependent for their biology
and life cycle. Thus Apiculture and Agriculture are interdependent for mutual benefits and cannot develop in
isolation. The enormous benefit that honeybees silently offer to Agricultural and Horticultural crop
productivity and to national economy goes unnoticed. The beekeeping industry has rarely put itself forward
as a Key Factor in agricultural production. We know role of honeybees in pollinating large number of crops.
But the public and what is more painful is the planners are unaware of this cheap, but essential and eco-
friendly input. The input, which has quadruple benefits viz. 1) employment generation among rural and
tribal population, 2) providing supplementary income to marginal farmer, landless labors etc. 3) Producing
honey, beeswax from the nectar of the flowers which otherwise dries up in nature and goes waste and finally
the most important 4) increasing crop productivity and crop production through bee-pollination. Ministry of
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Agriculture is planning for the Second Green Revolution. It may not be an exaggeration to say that second
green revolution may not yield desired results without honeybees. As honeybees and agricultural crops are
interdependent for their life cycle, Apiculture and Agriculture has to be integrated for mutual benefits.

6. Beekeeping A Multidisciplinary Subject: In case of other domestic animals i.e. in dairy, poultry,
piggery etc. the animals are confined to shed and are fed with stored food as per their requirement. Contrary
to this, honeybees themselves go out in search of their food which is a live material that is flowers. Thus
beekeeping is very peculiar industry in the sense that there is an interaction of two living materials i.e.
honeybees at one side and the flowering plants on the other side. Beekeeping industry therefore involves
different biological sciences like Bee-botany, entomology, bee- behavior, bee- management, bee-pathology,
bee-genetics, bee-breeding and quality control and handling of bee-products. In addition to this designing of
beekeeping equipment (Apiculture engineering) and providing graded training facilities in this
nontraditional new industry is also essential. An integrated approach and simultaneous attention to all these
aspects of beekeeping is required to be given for qualitative and quantitative development in the industry.
An over-view of the above aspect may be necessary to understand the industry in depth and to formulate
comprehensive perspective plan for the development of the beekeeping industry.

3- HONEY BEE PRODUCTS In India, honeybees are generally equated with honey production. Even
beeswax is considered as a by-product and much attention is not given for its collection and processing,
leave aside collection of other bee products namely, bee collected pollen and propolis, royal jelly and bee
venom. In the present global market, quality and competitive prices alone will govern the market and the
future of the industry. A beekeeper will therefore have to tap not only all the above bee products but also
provide his colonies on rental basis for pollination service and augment his income. Such strategy alone can
make the beekeeper self reliant and beekeeping a viable industry in the competitive market. It may however
be remembered that all the bee products are used either as food or in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.
For this reason, hygienic collection, handling, processing, storage etc. and maintaining National and
International purity standards are of prime importance. India is endowed with presence of three species of
the genera Apis, namely, A.dorsata, A.cerana, and A.florea and stingless honeybees of Trigona /Mellipona
sp. Successful introduction of European honeybees A. mellifera, in India, has given a new dimension to the
beekeeping industry. Though large quantities of honey and beeswax are collected in India and methods of
their collection, processing etc. have been fairly standardized, methods of production of other bee products
are yet to be standardized for commercial use. Standardization of methods of collection and development of
market for these products and for their value added products will have to be simultaneously looked into.

1. Honey In a single honeybee colony there are about ten thousand worker honeybees. Being social bees,
there is a highly evolved division of labour among these bees. Few scout bees, survey the area within a
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radius of one Km. and collect the information about the direction, distance and quality of food – nectar and
pollen, available. By performing some dances, this information is passed on to other honeybees. The
honeybees then take a straight flight and land on the crop for collecting nectar and pollen. The honeybees
continue to visit this particular crop until its flowering withers away. This peculiar behavior or the floral
fidelity of honeybees makes it possible to get honeys from predominantly a single plant source and thus we
get unifloral honeys like, Jamun honey, Mustard honey, Litchi honey etc. When density of a single plant
source is sparse in a particular area, then honeybees switch over to another plant species for gathering
nectar. Under these circumstances we get multi-floral honey. Each floral honey has a peculiar colour, taste
and flavor specific to the plant source. Except for these sensory tests, unifloral and multifocal honeys have
the same gross chemical composition.

2. Bees Wax: The process of evolution, honeybees appeared on the earth millions of years before man
made his appearance on this planet. As honey is said to be the first sweet substance known to man, beeswax
is said to be the first natural plastic known to man. The Egyptians in 4200 B.C. found numerous uses of
beeswax. They used to preserve mummies, to seal the coffins etc. Ship building industry was also a great
consumer of Beeswax. Beeswax was used for waterproofing the bottoms of the ships. The most important
property of beeswax, is its stable composition. Thousand year old beeswax cakes were recovered from the
sunken ships. The composition and properties of these wax cakes were unchanged over centuries.

3. Bee Collected Pollen Honeybees collect nectar, convert it into honey and store it as their carbohydrate
food. Similarly a single bee colony collects 25 to 40 Kg of pollen grains every year as a source of proteins,
vitamins, minerals, oils and fats etc. Pollen grains contains all types of nutrients required for the growth
young once in a bee colony and hence considered by many as a “Complete food‟. Pollen tablet are prepared
as “food supplement” by some Pharmaceutical Firms

3. Propolis Honeybees collect gummy material secreted by leaf or flower buds of some plants such as
poplars, conifers. This substance is known as propolis. Propolis is collected by European honeybees and not
by Indian honeybees. Honeybees use this resinous material to fill up cracks, crevices, and holes in the hive.
The hive entrance is reduced using propolis to protect the colony from intruders like wasps, lizards etc.
Propolis has anti-bacterial and antifungal properties and it also acts as a repellent for many bee enemies.
Propolis is used in some pharmaceutical preparations.

4. Royal Jelly Queen bee lays two types of eggs, unfertilized and fertilized. From unfertilized eggs drones
or male bees develop. From fertilized eggs, either worker bee (sterile female) or queen bee develops. After
hatching of the fertilized egg, for the first three days uniform and same food is given to all the larvae. After
three days, larvae to be developed into worker bees are given courser type of food and the larvae to be
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developed into queen bee are given abundant quantity of special food. This food brings miraculous changes
in the body of the queen bee and her life. The egg laying capacity and the extended life span is attributed to
the special food secreted from the hypo pharyngeal glands of the young worker bees. This food is more
popularly known as “Royal jelly” or “Miracle food” Royal jelly is used in many pharmaceutical
preparations.

5. Bee Venom Most of the people know honeybees for the honey they produce so also they know that
honeybees are armed with sting which they use for the defense of the colony. Bee venom is now known to
have some medicinal properties. Methods have been standardized to collect bee-venom

6. Apitherapy: From ancient times, man has exploited honeybees throughout the world, first for their sweet
honey and then for their protein rich brood and pollen. The use of beeswax came later and followed by other
bee products propolis, royal jelly and venom. In early 20th century, cane sugar was produced commercially.
Technology of commercial production of glucose was also developed. Since recently, fructose rich syrup
from corn, using enzymatic process, is being manufactured. In order to keep pace with changing times,
beekeepers and their organizations started looking for other avenues to augment their income. As a result,
traditional old therapy of using other bee products was revived and from 1960 onwards methods were
developed for commercial collection of pollen, propolis and venom and production of royal jelly from bee
colonies. Followed by these achievements, extensive research was done on all the six bee products for their
food and medicinal values and came into existence a new branch of medicine “Apitherapy‟ i.e. use of bee
products for treating various ailments.

MARKETING OF BEE PRODUCTS The Beekeeping Directorate concentrated its efforts on extension,
research and training aspects alone. Marketing of honey was looked after by the Beekeepers‟ cooperatives
themselves. The Beekeeping Directorate undertook marketing activity as a departmental activity since 1971
following a glut in honey market. It is estimated that wild honey contributes to nearly 70 per cent of the total
Indian honey production.

Honey Market

All tropical honeys including Indian honeys contain high moisture content (20 to 25 %), low enzymatic
value and high Hydroxyl-methyl-furfural (HMF) content, compared to European honeys. Honeys with
higher moisture content are liable to ferment quickly. Low enzyme and high HMF contents are indicative of
over-heating during processing or long storage. Special care will have to be taken to collect process and
pack Indian honeys to conform to International specifications.

a) Internal market: Compared to traditional wild honey, production of apiary honey is less and price-wise
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it is more costly than wild honey. Apiary honey has therefore market in big cities and in pharmaceutical
industries, while wild honey finds market in small cities, villages, Ayurvedic preparations etc.

b) International market: During 19th century hundreds of European honeybee colonies were migrated to
North America, South America, Australia, and New Zealand etc. These European honeybees are well
established in these countries and are being harnessed for production of honey, beeswax, royal jelly, pollen,
propolis and bee-venom. As against this, in India, we have 8 lakh bee colonies producing about 8000 tons of
apiary honey. FAO, WHO and European Common Market have laid down purity specifications for honey
based on the composition of Apis mellifera honeys. In developed countries honey is mainly used as food, in
food products, in bakery products and in breweries.

THE MAJOR CONSTRAINTS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF BEEKEEPING IN INDIA ARE AS

FOLLOWS

 Using the Correct Species for Beekeeping

 Availability of Genetically Superior Queens for Increased Honey Production

 Lack of Technical Knowledge for Efficient Management of Colonies for High Honey Yields

 Lack of Infrastructure at the Grass Roots and National Level for Beekeeping

 Poor Quality Control for the Production of Honey

 Emphasis on Production of Honey Instead of other Bee Products

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CONCLUSION

From many viewpoints viz. employment generation among rural youths and tribal population, producing
valuable products like, honey, beeswax, pollen, propolis, venom and royal jelly and above all increasing the
yields qualitatively and quantitatively, of various agricultural and horticultural crops, beekeeping has to be
developed on priority basis. Apiculture and Agriculture are interdependent and cannot develop in isolation.
Integration between Apiculture and Agriculture is therefore essential for mutual benefits and development.
Because of the peculiar nature of beekeeping industry, simultaneous attention is required to be given to
different disciplines of biological sciences. For implementing extension, research, training and marketing
programmes, KVIC, State K.V.I. Boards, Beekeepers‟ Cooperatives, Departments of Forest, Agriculture,
Horticulture

RURAL AGRICULTURAL WORK EXPERIENCE (RAWE)

CONCLUSION

RURAL; AGRICULTURAL WORK EXPERIENCE (RAWE), is an important project being required a

partial fulfillment of the degree course of B.Sc agriculture. I being a student of B.Sc agriculture VIIIth
semester got an opportunity to carry out this project in a proper guidance of the respected experts of the
particular field. The four topics selected by me:
 MUSHROOM TRAINING AT KRISHIVAN, Ipoint, PREM NAGAR,DEHRADUN
 FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRIES, Ipoint,PREM NAGAR, DEHRADUN.
 SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY UNDER SAHASPUR BLOCK, DEHRADUN AT
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CHHARBA
 APICULTURE TRAINING AT Ipoint ,PREMNAGAR
During the course of the project I got to know many things about various topics, a lot of information and
knowledge about the need for proper technology in agriculture, proper rural development. Participating in
these projects was an out and out great learning experience and also it was fun.

So I would like to conclude saying that RAWE is a very innovative & worthy approach towards a field
of practical learning and gaining knowledge about many new things which will surely become very
important in my near future.

REFERENCES

1 MUSHROOM CULTIVATION
*www.tnau.in
*advance mushroom production; Dr.Gopal Singh, Dr. Bijendra Singh
*www.google.com (images)
*www.agriinfo.com

2 FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRIES

*A text book of food processing and preservation by G Subbulakshmi &
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Shobha A Udipi
*www.jellyjamrecipes.com
* http://foodprocessingindia.co.in/

3 SOCIOECONOMIC SURVEY
*Wikipedia
*Google map
4 APICULTURE
*A text book of applied entomology by RP Srinivas & JS Dhaliwal
* www.tnau.com
*www.agriinfo.com
*Apiculture in India by Atuar Rahman