A

PROJECT REPORT
ON
“RURAL AGRICULTURAL WORK EXPERIENCE”

SUBMITTED IN
PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE
OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
IN
AGRICULTURE
BY
RIYA JOSHI
(ENROLLMENT NO: G192020099)
(BATCH: 2019-2023)
UNDER THE GUIDENCE OF
Er. GARGI SHEKHAR
HEAD OF DEPARMENT
DEPARTMENT OF ARICULTURE

SUBMITTED TO
ADVANCE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,
DEHRADUN (AFFILIATED TO HEMVATI NANDAN
BAHUGUNA GARHWAL UNIVERSITY, SRINAGER
UTTARAKHAND, INDIA) 2023

1
 DECLARATION

I here, by declare that the report entitled “Rural Agriculture Work Experience”
submitted to Advance Institute of Science and Technology, Selaqui, Dehradun,
Uttarakhand affiliated to “Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University,
Srinager Uttarakhand, India” for the partial fulfillment of the requirement of the
award of degree of “Bachelor of Science in Agriculture” course is a record of
bonafide work carried out by me.

Place: Dehradun Name: Riya Joshi

Date: ……………….. B.Sc Agriculture

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank almighty God for keeping me in
good health and giving strength in making my project a
complete success.

I express my profound and deep sense of gratitude to Er.

Gargi Shekhar. I thank him for inspiring guidance, through
provoking suggestions, elderly affection and above all creative
and constructive criticism.

I express my special thanks to all my respected faculty

members,my family for their endless support and motivation.
Lastly, I would like to thank my friends and everyone who
helped me directly or indirectly for making my project a
complete success.

Place: Dehradun Name: Riya Joshi

Date: ……………….. B.Sc. Agriculture

3
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Riya Joshi a bonafide student of B.Sc. Agriculture, VIII
Semester, Enrollment No: G192020099, D/O Mr. Mahesh Chandra Joshi , has
completed her, “Rural Agricultural Work Experience” programme under the
following four topics.

1. Mushroom Cultivation

2. Apiculture

3. Food Processing and Preservation

4. Socio- economic survey

She undertook this Rural Agricultural Work Experience Programme for

the partial fulfillment of the requirement of Degree of Bachelor of Science, in
Agriculture from Advance Technology of Science and Technology, Selaqui,
Dehradun, Uttarakhand affiliated to “Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal
University, Srinager, Uttarakhand.
I wish her the best and success in all her future endeavoras.

Date: …………….. Er. Gargi Shekhar

Place: Dehradun Head of Department
Department of Agriculture

4
 Rural Agricultural Work Experience

The rural agricultural work experience (RAWE) provides exposure to agricultural

students to the natural setting of the village situation, work with the farm families identify
their problems and make use of various extension tools for transferring the latest
technology. The students also get opportunity to study the various on-going schemes related
to agriculture and rural development their implementation it is introduce to UG curriculum
by recommendation of Randhawa committee during the year 1995-96.
Agricultural education is basically aimed to develop skilled manpower to take up
farming, undertaking research, teaching and extension work for agricultural development
in the Indian context. There is probably no occupation as agriculture in which experience
is more necessary and much time is required to obtain experience. Agriculture is backbone
of Indian economy to 52 per cent of Indian population. These farmers mostly reside in rural
areas and hence, development of our country cannot be possible without strengthening the
socio-economic conditions under which a rural farmer works. The Report of the Royal
Commission on Agriculture in India stated that complaints were made to them by some
cultivators that the training given in Agricultural Colleges was not sufficiently practical.
They noted the inability of agricultural demonstrators to handle bullock or to plough
properly and recommended provision of further facilities for obtaining practical
experience. One of the greatest educationists of India, Dr. Radhakrishnan noted that
bookishness has greatly limited the value of agricultural education. So, agricultural
education should be given a rural setting so that it includes direct participation and
experience with agricultural life and practice. Later he emphasized that work experience to
be provided to senior class students in real life situations, such as work on farm sat the time
of sowing, planting, harvesting orina family production unit and the opportunities of this
kind are to be utilized to the maximum extent possible. Such work experience should match
with the local situations.

5
 OBJECTIVES OF RAWE

 Understanding of rural life by the students.

 Familiarity with the socio economic condition of village.
 Opportunity for practical training.
 Development of communication skill in transfer of technology.
 Understanding of technology followed by farmers.
 Preparation of production plan suitable for local situation.
 Development of confidence and competency for facing problematic situation and finding
solutions.
 To make students understand the role of men and women in agricultural development and
program related to transfer of technology.
 To acquaint the students with going thrust on rural development.
 To familiarize with the socio-economic conditions of farmers and their problems with
reference to agricultural development.
 To make students understand farm technologies as adopted by farmers and also to help
farmers to prepare sound farm plans matching to available resources.
 To facilitate development of communication skills in students through use of extension
teaching methods for transfer of technology.
 To acquaint the students with going thrust on rural development.
 To familiarize with the socio-economic conditions of farmers and their problems with
reference to agricultural development.
 To make students understand farm technologies as adopted by farmers and also to help
farmers to prepare sound farm plans matching to available resources.

6
Mushroom Cultivation Certificate

7
Apiculture Certificate

8
Food Processing Certificate

9
Rural Survey Certificate

10
 INDEX

Unit CONTENTS PAGE

Mushroom Cultivation
1 ♦ INTRODUCTION
♦ IMPORTANCE OF MUSHROOM 14-23
♦ OYSTER MUSHROOM
♦ METHOD OF CULTIVATION
♦ POST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGY
♦ CONCLUSION

Apiculture
2 ♦ INTRODUCTION
♦ ORGANIZATION OF BEE COLONY
♦ LIFE HISTORY OF BEES
♦ BEE-KEEPING METHODS
♦ EQUIPMENTS
♦ APIS CERANA 24 - 41
♦ COLONY MULTIPLICATION
♦ CONCLUSION

Food Processing
♦ INTRODUCTION
3 ♦ INNOVATIVE FOOD PROCESSING
♦ ADVANCE IN FOOD PROCESSING
♦ OBJECTIVE OF FOOD PROCESSING
♦ FOOD SAFETY AND STANDARDS ACT
2006 42 - 53
♦ PROCESSING DETAILS FOR JAM
MARMAKADE PRODUCTION
♦ CONCLUSION

Rural Survey
4 ♦ INTRODUCTION
♦ OBJECTIVES
♦ SITE DESCRIPTION
♦ SAMPLING PROCEDURE
♦ SOCIAL STATUS
♦ CROPPING PATTERN 54- 66
♦ VISIT TO BEAT OFFICE
♦ EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
♦ CONCLUSION

11
 CONTENT

NAME OF THE IMAGE PAGE

SL.NO NO
1 Fig 1.1 Oyster Mushroom Bags 14

2 Fig 1.2 Spawning and Room for mushroom 17

cultivation

3 Fig1.3Mushroom ready for harvest. 19

4 Fig.1.4 Green Mould Diseases 21

5 Fig.1.5 Bacterial Blotch disease 21

6 Fig.1.6 Mushroom Pickles 22

7 Fig 2.1 Apiculture group photo 24

8 Fig.2.2 Apis dorsata 25

9 Fig 2.3 Apis indica 26

10 Fig.2.4 Apis florea 26

11 Fig.2.5 Apis mellifera 27
12 Fig.2.6 Anatomy of worker bee 28
13 Fig.2.7 Different types of bee in a hive 29
14 Fig 2.8 Identify of Bees 34
15 Fig.2.9 Bee wax 35
16 Fig.2.10 Propolis 35
17 Fig.2.11 Bee pollen 36
18 Fig.2.12 Royal jelly 37
19 Fig.2.13 Bee venom 37
20 Fig 2.13 Smoker 39

21 Fig 2.14 Honey Extractor 39

22 Fig.2.15 Honey bottling 40

23 Fig 3.1 Preparation of Jam 42

24 Fig 3.2 Botteled Jam 48

12
25 Fig 3.3 Bottled Squash 50
26 51
Fig 3.4 Mixing of pickle
26 54
Fig 4.1Survey group Photo
27 Fig 4.2 Map of Dehradun showing study area location. 56
28 Fig 4.3 Landholding Status 57
29 Fig 4.4 Occupation 58
30 Fig 4.5 Cow and Buffalo 59
31 Fig 4.6 .Visit To Beat Office Near The Village 61
32 Fig 4.7 Health Care Center 62
33 Fig 4.8 Village Road 62
34 Fig 4.9 Irrigation Department 63
35 Fig :-4.10 Primary School students 64
36 &4.11 Primary School 64
37 Fig 4.13:- Family 1 65
38 Fig 4.14:- Family 2 65
39 Fig 4.15:- Family 3 65
40 Fig 4.16:- Laxmipur Village 65

13
 UNIT-1

MUSHROOM CULTIVATION

Fig 1.1:-Oyster Mushroom Begs

14
 INTRODUCTION
Mushroom belongs to the plant kingdom known as “FUNGI”. They cannot produce their
own food and it depends on organic matter for their nutrition. They grow saprophytic ally on various
substrates or parasitically and symbiotically on or with other organism. Commonly, mushrooms are
in the form of an umbrella like structure or a cap with stalk. However, there is a lot of variation in
fruiting structure with different shapes, sizes and with or without stock. Some varieties even produce
fruiting bodies underground. There are large number of species growing wild in nature, while many
edible; some are mild to deadly poisonous. In ancient times mushroom has been treated as a special
kind of food and were considered as a functional food because of its medicinal and nutritional
property.

Mushroom is a short duration crop that takes only 20-30days to get the first harvest and
entire cropping cycle is completed within 45-60days. The bio efficiency of mushroom is very high as
for every KG of paddy straw used 500-1000gm of fresh mushroom is harvested. Mushroom growing
is eco-friendly as it involves recycling of plant waste to produce protein rich food and its spent
mushroom substrate can be use to produce organic manure.

Mushrooms are popular for their delicacy and flavoured food value. It is well established fact
they are excellent sources of vitamins and minerals. Fresh mushrooms constitute 80-90% moisture
3% protein 0.3-0.4% fat and 1% minerals. With the low fat and carbohydrate content they constitute
an ideal dish for diabetic patients, heart diseases, hypertension and obesity.

TYPES OF IMPORTANCE OF MUSHROOM

Mushrooms help plants grow. Together with bacteria they help dead materials get back
into soil so that it can be used again. Some are useful in controlling pests of crops. It also has a
medicinal and nutritional value such as.
 Cholesterol Levels: Mushrooms themselves provide with lean proteins as they have zero
cholesterol, fats and very low carbohydrates. The fibre and certain enzymes in them also help
lower cholesterol level. Moreover, the high lean protein content in mushrooms helps in
burning cholesterol when they are digested.
 Breast cancer and prostate cancer: Mushrooms are very effective in preventing
cancer of breasts and prostrate due to presence of Beta-Glucans and conjugated Linoleic Acid
having anti carcinogenic effects. Out of these two, linoleic acid is particularly helpful in
suppressing effects of estrogens. This estrogen is the prime reason for breast cancer in women
after menopause. The Beta-Glucans, on the other hand, inhibit growth of cancerous cells in

15
 cases of prostate cancer. Selenium in mushrooms is very effective in inhibiting cancerous cells.

 Diabetes: Mushrooms can be an ideal low energy diet for diabetes. They have no fats, no
cholesterol, very low carbohydrates, high proteins, vitamins and minerals, a lot of water and
fibre. Moreover, they contain natural insulin and enzymes which help in breaking down of
sugar or starch of the food. Again, they are known to contain certain compounds which help
proper functioning of liver, pancreas and the other endocrinal glands, thereby promoting formation of
insulin and its proper flow.
 Immunity: Mushrooms contain natural antibiotics (similar to penicillin, which itself is
extracted from mushrooms) which inhibit microbial and other fungal infections. They also
help heal other ulcers and ulcerous wounds and protect them from infections. A good
combination of vitamins A, B-Complex and C, found in mushrooms also strengthens immune
system.
 Nutrients: Mushrooms are the only vegetable and the second known source (after cod liver
oil) to contain vitamin-D in edible from. They are very rich in calcium (good for bones),
iron(benefits in anaemia), potassium (very good for lowering blood pressure), copper (anti
bacterial) and selenium (very good for health of bones, teeth, nails, hair and as an anti oxidant).
The best source of selenium is animal proteins. So, mushrooms can be the best choice for
vegetarians to obtain selenium.
CULTIVATION OF OYSTER MUSHROOM

Oyster mushroom also known as DHINGRI or JAPANESE mushroom has the capability
of braking down cellulose and lignin bearing materials. Its cultivation is easy and its cost of production
is also low. Like all fleshy fruits and vegetables, mushrooms are highly perishable of their high
moisture content and delicate in nature.

Scientific name: Pleurotus florida

Common name: Oyster mushroom
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Pleuroteceae
Genus: Pleurotus
Climatic requirement- Oyster mushroom can be grown within a temperature range of 160C-300C

16
for its optimum growth. The favourable growing seasons are during Feb./mar-oct/nov in the hills and
sep/oct-mar/apr in the plains.

Material requirements-
1. Paddy straw
2. Perforated Ply bags(18‟x12‟)
3. Mushroom spawn
4. Room with bamboo racks
5. Equipments like chaff cutter and boiling drum
6. Buckets and sprayers.
BUILDINGS AND OTHER FACILITIES

Most ordinary buildings are not suitable for mushrooms. Oyster mushrooms have some basic
requirements for the environment.

a) Temperature of 150-200C and humidity of 80-90%. Both temperature and humidity should be kept
as constant as possible as any rapid changes in temperature will cause disastrous
changes in humidity.
b) Good ventilation: - It is needed for healthy mushroom and health of the growers. Ventilation
removes CO2 formed by mushrooms.
c) Light: - Light also helps in the growth of mushrooms. However natural daylight does not work
well.

Fig 1.2:-Spawning and Room for mushroom cultivation

17
METHOD OF CULTIVATION
The production of the oyster mushroom can be conveniently summarized into a number
of stages which are to be strictly followed in order to achieve higher biological efficiencies (B.E).
The stages are as follows:

1. Mushroom growing house disinfection

2. Substrate preparation
3. Straw sterilization
4. Spawning
5. Maturation
6. Harvesting
7. Post-harvest handling.
1. Mushroom growing house disinfection
The mushroom growing house (MGH) is a very selective environment for the growing of the
oyster mushroom. This means that it must not give chance for the growing of other competitor
organisms which will compete for nutrients with our mushrooms e.g. bacteria, other fungi, viruses
and pests- flies, rodents etc. Since chemicals are not encouraged to practice organic farming which
involves the non chemical production of mushrooms by using biological control methods. However,
chemicals like hypo chloride (jik), dettol, formaldehyde or hydrogen peroxide can be used for initially
disinfecting the MGH or between cycles.
2. Substrate preparation
Oyster mushroom can be grown on various substrates viz. Paddy straw, maize stalks/cobs,
vegetable plant residues etc. Since paddy straw is easily available and cheap, it is widely used. Paddy
straw should be fresh and well-dried.
3. Straw sterilization
Cut the paddy straw into 2 long and then fill the gunny bag which is then soaked in water for
an hour after which the excess water is allowed to drain out. A drum of 220L capacity is filled with a
small amount of water with a wooden frame placed at the bottom of the drum is taken. Straw filled
gunny bags are kept at the top of the wooden frame so as to avoid it from getting soaked in water. The
open end of the drum is sealed with plastic sheet during sterilization. Sterilization of the straw is
considered once the water starts boiling which should be done for an hour after reaching boiling point.
On completion of sterilization the gunny bags are taken out n allowed to cool.

18
4. Spawning
The sterilized straw is filled into the perforated polybags by slightly pressing so as to form
about 3” thickness of the first layer. Then spread 20g of spawn uniformly over the entire straw layer
and repeat the process till 4-5 layers of straw ensuring that there is proper pressing for every layer.
5. Spawn running
Now compress the bag n tie its mouth with binding rope and the spawned bags are kept in a
room away from direct sunlight for incubation at a temperature between 200-300C . After 3 weeks or
so the whole substrate turns white which indicate the spawn run completion. So the plastic cover is
removed and the bags are placed by tying in bamboo poles inside the growing room. Watering should
be done2 days after opening of the bag and within 2-3 days mushroom primordial begins to form.
6. Harvesting
The first harvest of mushroom can be taken in 5-7 days of pinhead formation by giving a gentle
twist of the fruiting body. Light watering should be given on daily basis and after a week another
sprout of pinhead will appear. 3-4 flushes during 1 cropping cycle can be obtained after which the
leftover substrate can be used for the production of manure.
7. Yield
An average yield of 0.75-1 kg fresh mushroom per cropping cycle is obtained

Fig1.3:- Mushroom ready for harvest.

19
FLOW CHART OF OYSTER MUSHROOM CULTIVATION

Raw materials (paddy straw/vegetable plant residue)

Chopping

Soaking the straw (1 hr)

Drain off excess water

Fill up in gunny bag

Dip in hot water for 15 minutes

Drain off excess water

On cooling fill the bags 4-5 layers of 10 cm each with spawn

Arrange bags in shelves (spawn requires 20-25 days)

Pin head stage evolves (3-5 days)

Harvesting is done in 7 days

20
DISEASES AND PEST MANAGEMENT
Green mould (Trichoderma spp.)

Small blue green cushions are seen on spawned and cased trays/bags. It also grows on dead
pinheads of mushrooms and cut stumps. Mushroom caps may turn brown on top side.

Bacterial Blotch:

Fig 1.4:-Green Mould Diseases

Symptoms: The lesions induced by the pathogen on mushroom tissues are initially pale yellow but
later it become golden yellow or chocolate brown. Blotches generally appear when mushrooms are in
the early button stage, but can appear on mushroom of any growth stage including harvested
refrigerated mushrooms or mushrooms over-wrapped with a water tight film. Typical spotting is
observed at or near the edge of mushroom cap, at the contact points between two mushroom caps, at
crevices in clusters of mushroom or wherever mushroom caps remain wet for a period of 4-6 hours or
longer after water has been applied. Severely affected mushrooms may be distorted and the caps may
split where the blotch symptoms occur.

Sciarid flies: (Bradysiapaupera, B. tritici)

• The adults are found to be grayish black, 2.2-3.2 mm long.

• In the female flies, the abdomen is swollen with pointed ovipositor.
• Larvae with dirty white transparent with visible alimentary canal and 6.0 to 8.0 mm long.

Fig 1.5:-Bacterial Blotch disease

21
POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY OF OYSTER MUSHROOM

Mushrooms continue to respire after harvest and the respiration rate of oyster mushroom is 3
times greater than most fruits. However, there are certain measures which enhance the shelf-life and
make the availability of mushroom throughout the year at reasonable cost. These are the long term
and short term preservations.

SHORT TERM STORAGE

 Harvesting and packaging:-Oyster mushroom should be harvested by giving a gentle twist

of the fruiting body. It is advisable to pick all the mushrooms at a time from the bag so that the
next flush will appear in time. Harvested mushrooms are then packed in perforated polythene bags.
 Storage:-Freshly harvested oyster mushroom can be stored at a temperature of 0-50C for 1-2 weeks
without loss in quality.
 Transportation: - The mushrooms are placed in trays or baskets containing crushed ice and
overwrapped in paper. The tray or basket is then covered with polythene sheet
of sufficient perforation.
LONG TERM STORAGE
 Drying of mushroom: -Drying or dehydration is the oldest method of preserving mushroom and
is still popular. Mushrooms for drying should be harvested at a matured stage. It can be dried in the
sun or in mechanical dehydrator. After complete drying, mushrooms should be placed in air-tight
container in a cool and dry place. Dried mushroom can be grinded into powder for mushroom soup.
 Mushroom pickle: -Pickling is an economically viable way of preserving mushroom during the
off-season. It is a process to relish mushroom lovers when the cost of mushroom is too high.

Fig 1.6:- MUSHROOM PICKLES

22
 CONCLUSION
Mushroom cultivation has many facilities requirements. There are no shortcuts to those
requirements. If the requirements are not met, failure, or at least poor production is assured. The
facilities must provide the environment required for mushroom growth and must also provide the
primary protection against insects, other pests and disease. Without the environment and protection
provided by the facilities, management cannot protect the crop or obtain good yields.
Mushroom cultivation in Nagaland is still in its early stages and has a long way to go before
it picks up its pace. Mushroom cultivation is very viable enterprise that can be taken up by the common
people as the cost involved is minimal and the returns are maximum. Mushroom cultivationcan be
taken up as a part time or full time enterprise as not much effort is required for cultivating them. It can
be contributed in minimizing the unemployment problems faced by the state as the peoplecan take up
mushroom cultivation as a full time occupation.
Mushrooms were always a delicacy for the Nagas and now they have started to realize the
medicinal values of the mushrooms due to various educational initiatives taken by the state department
in educating the people. Due to the suitability of the weather condition a number of mushrooms can
be grown in Nagaland according to different seasons. Mushrooms are grown in various state nurseries,
by private and various self-help groups. Mushrooms sell at a high price per kg mainly due to the
medicinal properties.

23
 UNIT –2
APICULTURE

Fig 2.1:-Apiculture photo

24
 INDRODUCTION

Beekeeping (or apiculture) is the maintenance of bee colonies, commonly in man-

made hives, by humans. Most such bees are honey bees in the genus Apis, but other honey-
producing bees such as Melipona & Trigona stingless bees are also kept. A beekeeper or
(apiarist) keeps bees in order to collect their honey and other products that the hive produce
(including honey, bee wax, propolis, pollen, venom and royal jelly), to pollinate crops, or to
produce bees for sale to other beekeepers. A location where bees are kept is called an apiary or
"bee yard‖. The profession of bee-keeping offers an immense potential for providing
employment to rural masses in India where many crops, vegetables, evergreen trees, forests
etc. provide required flora. The distinctive feature of beekeeping is the small capital investment
required as compared to other industries. Furthermore, it does not need raw material in usual
sense as nature provides the same in the form of nectar and pollen. It can be carried out by all
age groups, i.e. by men, women, grown- up children and even by physically handicapped and
retired person. Apiculture does not bring any pressure on agriculture land and it produces
honey, beeswax, pollen, propolis from the flowers which otherwise dry up in nature and go
waste. Beekeeping is advocated to improve human welfare by alleviating poverty through
increased household income, biodiversity conservation, food and nutritional security, raw
material for industries and enhance environmental resilience.it play great role in agriculture for
food production as pollination without them life on earth not exist & the product from bee give
high income so that we can sold it in market.

HISTORY OF BEEKEEPING
Apiculture is thought to have been practiced as 10000- 13000 BC. The medicinal
importance of honey is mentioned in QUARAN in SURAHNAHL in chapter 16 verse no 68
& 69 also mentioned in vedas, puranas, Ramayana & Mahabharata.

Species of honey bees:-

Apis dorsata: - Apis dorsata also called the rock bees and giant bees, these insect are the
largest of all the bees. They are found all over India from the hilly tracts (1200 m) to the plains.
They make the largest hives -6 ft. long and 3 ft. deep that hang from high rocks and tall
trees, several per tree.6 dozens to 156 hive s have been counted on a single silk – cotton tree
in India. There colonies shift from place to place to avoid extremes of climate or in search of
honey but somehow they occupy the same tree, even the same branches and the

25
 same branches and the ledges of rocks year after year. Perhaps they leave a scent that helps
them identify the place.

Fig 2.1 Apis dorsata

Apis cerana indica: - Apis indica or Indian bee is medium-sized bee and spread over to
Pakistan, SriLanka, S-E Asia, Indonesia, Philippines, China and Japan. In India two varieties
the hill variety or Gandhiana, darker and larger and plain variety, Indica, smaller and yellow,
25 are recognized. The bee make parallel combs on trees ,termites, hollows of rocks and all
kinds of cavities Its honey yield is 3.6 to4.5 kg on the hills and 1.3 to 2.2 kg on the plains. It
can be domesticated and, therefore, attempts have been made to produce a hybrid between it
and A. dorsata. But it has failed.

Fig 2.2 Apis indica

Apis florea: - Apis florea or the little bee is the smallest of all the bees. It is found all over
the plains, never above 450 mtr. It makes a single vertical comb of the size of palm suspended
from branches of bushes, hedges, buildings, caves, chimneys, empty cases etc. It remains in
the open and do not stand captivity. It does not easily sting and so is mistaken for a stingless
bee though it possesses a sting. Its honey yield is poor, about ½ kg and the consistency of
honey is thick.

26
 Fig 2.3 Apis florea

Apis mellifera Apis mellifera or the European bee has originated in Italy and been
introduced in all countries of the world where they have formed the following well
recognized races: Apis mellifera ligustica (Italy), A .m. caucasia (Russia), A. mellifera
(France) A. m. adansoni (Africa), A .m. indica (India), A.m.sinensis (China), and A.m.
Japonica (Japan).The behavior and looks of Apis mellifera ares so similar to those of Apis
indica that can be easily mistaken for the other. It make its nest in enclosed spaces in parallel
combs and in endowed with all the good qualities of a hive bee has a prolificqueen,
swarm less, gentle tempered so domesticated , good honey gatherer and can guard its nest
against enemies except wasps.

Fig 2.4 Apis mellifera

Brief description of Apis mellifera

In India Apis mellifera are mostly cultivated in every areas because of its nature, behavior
and the good quality of honey. It makes its nest in enclosed spaces in parallel combs. So, for
this, we can easily make their colony and cultivate them properly. They gather good amount
of honey in their comb and the quality of honey is good as compare to

27
 others. Its honey yield is much better than the other bees. So, here we discuss about Apis
mellifera briefly.

Classification of Apis mellifera

Structure:-
The bodies of bees are divided into head, thorax and abdomen, with 3 pairs of legs and
2wing thorax. The fore and hind wings on each side are linked by hooks and grooves so that
they move together in flight. The mouth parts consist of a "tongue" or labium, which can be
enclosed near the head by the labial palps and maxillae. Nectar, from the nectaries of flowers
can be drawn up the grooved surface of the labium, partly by capillary attraction and partly by
the pumping action of muscles in the head. When not in use, these elongated mouth parts are
folded back under the head, leaving the shorter, stouter mandibles free in front to chew pollen,
manipulate wax, attack intruders etc. The ovipositor, through which the queen lays her eggs in
the wax cell, is modified in the workers to form a sting.

Fig 2.5 Anatomy of worker bee

Organization of colonies
There are four species of Apis, the honey-bee, one of which is Apis mellifera, the Western
honey-bee which is the commonest hive-bee in this country. There are three kinds of bee in a
colony: in the summer, a few hundred drones / males, one egg-laying female, / queen and
from 20 to 80 thousand sterile females / workers. The mature queen is usually easily recognized
by her large abdomen.
The Queen:
A queen bee may live from two to five years and, except for a short period at the end of her
life when one of her daughters takes over the colony; she is the only egg-laying female. All

28
the members of the colony, whether drones are non-fertile offspring & workers are her fertile
offspring. She spends all the time for laying eggs, perhaps up to 1500 a day, each one being
placed in a wax cell made by the workers. The queen can feed herself but in the hive the nearest
workers turn towards her, lick her body and feed her by regurgitating a special secretion of their
hypo pharyngeal gland liquid with salivary glands, called "royal jelly", on to their proboscis
from which the queen can absorb.
The queen usually mates only once in her life (though second and third mating are known to
happen) and stores the sperms received from the drone in a sperm sac in her abdomen. This
store of sperms lasts her for the two or more years of egg-laying, a small quantity being released
with each fertilized egg laid. When the store of sperms is used up she may continueto lay eggs
but they are all unfertilized and will become drones. By this time on of her daughters has been
reared as a queen and is ready to take over the egg laying.

Life history
Each egg is laid in one of the hexagonal wax cells and hatches into a tiny, white, legless larva.
The larva feeds on substances deposited in the cell by the workers; it grows, pupates in the cell,
hatches as an adult bee and finally emerges from the cell into the hive. The eggs hatch after
three to four days and by nine days are fully grown and ready to pupate. The workers put a
capping over the cells at this time. Ten or eleven days later the capping is bitten away and the
adult emerges. The times given above vary with changes of temperature and according to
whether the bee is becoming a drone, worker or queen.

Drones:-
The drones, who live for about four to five weeks and do not work inside the hive, are fed by
the workers or help themselves from the store of pollen and nectar in the combs. Their function
is to fertilize a new queen. In the autumn, or when conditions are poor, they are turned out of
the hive where, unable to find food for themselves, they soon die.

Fig 2.6 Different types of bees in a hive

29
 Different stages of development

TABLE 2.1 Stages of Development

Stages of development Queen Drone Worker bee

Egg 3 days 3 days 3 days

Larva 5 days 7 days 4-5 days

Pupa stage 7-8 days 14 days 12-13 days

Total 15 days 24 days 21 days

WORKER BEES

 Workers are imperfect females. They are unable to mate though may start egg laying if a colony
remains queen less for long period. They perform all the useful work in the colony.
 Duties of workers include: Cleaning of the hive, feeding of larvae, raising queen Cells when
required, ventilate hive, guard the hive entrances, secrete bees wax, Construct the combs,
collect the nectar and convert it into honey, collection of pollen, water and propolis, produce
a predigested food of royal jelly for feeding queens and young larvae and scouting for a new
nest site during swarming. The workers also feed the drones but when not needed, they are
thrown out of hive.
WORK ACTIVITY OF HONEY BEE
Period Work activity
 Days 1-3 Cleaning cells and incubation.

 Day 4- 6 Feeding younger larvae.

 Day 7-11 Hypo pharyngeal glands (food glands) get developed and start secreting royal
jelly and feed younger larvae.

 Day 12-18 Develop wax glands and work on building of comb, construction of cells etc.,
receive the nectar, pollen, water, propolis etc., from field gatherers and deposit in the
comb cells and help in keeping the brood warm.

30
  Day 18-20 perform guard duty.

 Day 20th onward- collection of nectar & pollen also water & propolis.

CHARACTERISTIC OF BEE
The act of rearing of bees is called ‗Apiculture„ or ‗Bee keeping„. Honey bees
are reared in artificial hives for the products they give viz., honey, wax and help
rendered by them in pollination of the crop.
BEE SPECIES
Sub family: Apinae (Apis spp), Meliponiae (Melipona and Trigona)
Family: Apidae
Super family: Apoidea
Order: Hymenoptera
Sub order: Apocrita

Table 2.2 Characteristics of Bees

Particular Rock bee Indian bee Italian bee Little bee Dammer bee

size Biggest Medium Medium Smaller Smallest

Honey yield 35 kg 3-5 kg 100kg 1 kg 100g
Comb Single Several Several Single wax Cerumen
construction wax comb parallel wax parallel wax comb combs in
combs in combs in cracks and
concealed concealed crashes
place place
Domestication Not possible possible possible Not possible possible
Migratory present present absent absent present
behavior
population 25000 20000-30000 20000- 5000 500-1000
300000
Nature ferocious tamable tamable Not biting
ferocious

31
Importance Beekeeping Apiculture and Agriculture -
Beekeeping is a very fascinating occupation. It can be practiced equally by men, women,
grown up children and even by physically handicapped and old persons. The investment
required is low, and the economic returns are comparatively very high. Beekeeping does not
bring any pressure on agriculture land. It produces honey, beeswax, pollen, propolis from the
flowers which otherwise dry up in nature and go waste. Beekeeping is a decentralized industry
and does not displace persons from their villages. If conditions are favorable, level of
beekeeping can be increased to semi-commercial or commercial level.
Honey bees and Forests:
Honeybees and forests have been associated with each other for several million years.
Honeybees are an integral part of forests and their ecology. A healthy bee fauna is an indication
of healthy forest and its natural balance. This is so because bees and flowering plants have
evolved together as one biological unit over past million years. Hills and adjacent transitional
belts and hills and surrounding agricultural belts having mixture of forests and agriculture are
of the unique It is necessary to check this deterioration trend of the industry if this important
income resource to the rural and tribal population depending upon forests for their livelihood
has to be maintained. This is all the more necessary in view of the importance of honeybees as
cross pollinators of various agricultural and horticultural crops.
Role of Honeybees in Agriculture and Horticulture
Until mid-20th century, honeybees were equated with the production of honey and beeswax.
But since past 3-4 decades, utilizing honeybees to pollinate large number of agricultural and
horticultural crops to increase per acre yield has become a routine practice in many developed
countries. Many commercial beekeepers in America prefer to provide honeybee colonies on
rental basis for pollination service rather than to take honey production. Beekeepers in
California earn about $150 per bee colony per month as a rental for providing bee colonies
for pollination service. According to Agricultural Scientists in U.S.A., value of increased crop
yields 33 due to honeybee pollination is 10 to 15 times more than the value of honey and
beeswax the honeybees produce.

32
Crops Benefited by Bee Pollination
Experiments on effect of bee pollination on various crops were conducted by Central Bee
Research and Training Institute and various Agricultural Universities under All India
Coordinated Project on Honeybee Research and Training (ICAR). There is a good data
available on this subject from abroad also. A cross section of the cross fertile crops, self-
sterile crops with different degree of self-sterility and even self-fertile crops benefited by bee
pollination is summarized below:
Oilseed: White mustard, Rape, Toria, Sarsoo, Safflower, Sunflower, Linseed, Niger,
Gingelly, etc.
Orchard Crops: Apple varieties, pears, plums, cherry, strawberry, raspberry, Litchi, citrus
varieties, grapes, cucumbers, squashes, melons, Almond, peach, guava, gooseberry.
Legume seeds: Alfalfa, barseem and other clovers, broad beans, dwarf beans. Vegetable seeds:
radish, cabbage, turnip, carrot, onion, cauliflower, gourds.
Integration of Apiculture and Agriculture- Horticulture
Nearly 70 percent of the cultivated crops all over the world are cross fertile and depend on
insects like honeybees for pollination. Dwindling of population of useful pollinating insects has
become a global problem. This is due to pollution of water, air and indiscriminate use of
insecticides. Of all the pollinating insects, honeybees are considered as the most efficient and
reliable crop pollinators. The enormous benefit that honeybees silently offer to Agricultural and
Horticultural crop productivity and to national economy goes unnoticed. The beekeeping
industry has rarely put itself forward as a Key Factor in agricultural production. We know
role of honeybees in pollinating large number of crops. But the public and what is more painful
is the planners are unaware of this cheap, but essential and eco-friendly input. The input, which
has quadruple benefits viz;
1. Employment generation among rural and tribal population.

2. Providing supplementary income to marginal farmer, landless labours etc.

3. Producing honey, beeswax from the nectar of the flowers which otherwise dries up
innature and goes waste and finally the most important.
4. Increasing crop productivity and crop production through bee-pollination.

33
 Beekeeping A Multidisciplinary Subject
In case of other domestic animals i.e. in dairy, poultry, piggery etc.
The animals are confined to shed and are fed with stored food as per their requirement.
Contrary to this, honeybees themselves go out in search of their food which is a live material
that is flowers. Thus beekeeping is very peculiar industry in the sense that there is an
interaction of two living materials i.e. honeybees at one side and the flowering plants on the
other side. In addition to this designing of beekeeping equipment (Apiculture engineering) and
providing graded training facilities in this non-traditional new industry is also essential. An
integrated approach and simultaneous attention to all these aspects of beekeeping is required
to be given for qualitative and quantitative development in the industry.

HONEY BEE PRODUCTS

In India, honeybees are generally equated with honey production. Even beeswax is considered
as a by-product and much attention is not given for its collection and processing, leave aside
collection of other bee products namely, bee collected pollen and propolis, royal jelly and bee
venom. In the present global market, quality and competitive prices alone will govern the
market and the future of the industry. A beekeeper will therefore have to tap not only all the
above bee products but also provide his colonies on rental basis for pollination service and
augment his income. Such strategy alone can make the beekeeper self-reliant and
beekeeping a viable industry in the competitive market.

 Honey
In a single honeybee colony there are about ten thousand worker honeybees. Beingsocial
bees, there is a highly evolved division of labour among these bees. By performing some
dances for pass information to other honeybees. Honey has more content of fructose, glucose
and proteins, carbohydrates and some other disaccharides, trisachharides.

Fig 2.7 Identify of Bees

34
  Bee wax
In the process of evolution, honeybees appeared on the earth millions of years before man
made his appearance on this planet. As honey is said to be the first sweet substance known to
man, bee wax is said to be the first natural plastic known to man. The Egyptians in 4200 B.C.
found numerous uses of beeswax. They used to preserve mummies, to seal the coffins etc. Ship
building industry was also a great consumer of Beeswax. Beeswax was used forwaterproofing
the bottoms of the ships. The most important property of bee wax is its stable composition.
Thousand year old beeswax cakes were recovered from the sunken ships. The composition and
properties of these wax cakes were unchanged over centuries.

Fig.2.8 Bee wax

 Proplis

Honeybees collect gummy material secreted by leaf or flower buds of some plants such as
poplars, conifers. This substance is known as propolis. Propolis is collected by European
honeybees and not by Indian honeybees. Honeybees use this resinous material to fill up cracks,
crevices, and holes in the hive. The hive entrance is reduced using propolis to protectthe colony
from intruders like wasps, lizards etc. Propolis has anti-bacterial and anti-fungal properties and
it also acts as a repellent for many bee enemies. Propolis is used in some pharmaceutical
preparations.

Fig.2.9 Propolis

35
  Bee pollen

Bee pollen, also known as bee bread and ambrosia, is a ball or pellet of field-gathered
flower pollen packed by worker honeybees, and used as the primary food source for the
hive. It consists of simple sugars, protein, minerals, vitamins, fatty acids, and a small
percentage of other components. Bee pollen is stored in brood cells, mixed with saliva, and
sealed with a drop of honey. Bee pollen is harvested as food for humans andmarketed as
having various, but yet unproven, health benefits.

Fig.2.10.Bee pollen

 Royal Jelly Queen

Bee lays two types of eggs, unfertilized and fertilized. From unfertilized eggs drones or male
bees develop. From fertilized eggs, either worker bee (sterile female) or queen bee develops.
After hatching of the fertilized egg, for the first three days uniform and same food is given to
all the larvae. After three days, larvae to be developed into worker bees are given courser type
of food and the larvae to be developed into queen bee are given abundant quantity of special
food. This food brings miraculous changes in the body of the queen bee and her life.

36
 Fig.2.11 Royal jelly

 Bee venom

Most of the people know honeybees for the honey they produce so also they know that
honeybees are armed with sting which they use for the defense of the colony. Bee venom is
now known to have some medicinal properties. Methods have been standardized to collect bee
venom Bee venom contains several active molecules such as peptides and enzymes that have
advantageous potential in treating inflammation and central nervous system diseases, such as
Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Fig.2.12 Bee venom

37
 APIARY MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Location of an Apiary

 An apiary should be located in an orchard or near bee pasturage (nectar & pollen yielding
plants) within the radius of 1-2 km.
 The hives should not face the wind direction. Trees and bushes form a good wind barrier.

 The site should be flat with good drainage.

 Clean and fresh running water should be available.

 A young orchard without thick groves is an ideal choice.

 In the shade less area, an artificial shed may be provided.

 An apiary should not be located too near a high way.

 A good barbed wire fence or a live thorny hedge may be provided to keep out intruders.

 The site should be free from termite and black ant.

 The hives should be placed 2-3 meters apart in rows at spacing of 3-7 meter apart basedon
availability of space.
 Land marks such as trees, bushes etc., and may be planted at suitable intervals to help
them to recognize their hives.

Swarm control

The strength of the colonies gets depleted as a result of swarming. The methods of swarm
control are:

 Clipping off specially constructed queen cells.

 Primary swarm is allowed to take place, but trapped in a swarm trap and hive as a
separate colony. Destroying the remaining open brood cells prevents the after swarms.
 Take out 1 or 2 brood combs with the reigning queen and few workers from strong
colonies and put in a separate hive thus the colony is divided.
 Interchange the positions between a strong and weak colony.
 1 or 2 brood combs of strong colonies are removed and given to week colonies.
 Add supers for ventilation.

38
 Fig 2.13 Smoker Fig 2.14 Honey Extractor

Artificial feeding

Artificial feeding of sugar syrup increases bee strength, brood area and food reserves.Provision
of 3 kg sugar solution (10%) in split doses per month at weekly intervals is preferably. The
food is given only in the evening hours in containers through floats. Pollen deficiency may be
supplemented by feeding cakes containing trapped pollen (1 part), soybeanflour (3 parts) and
sugar syrup (2 parts) (sugar and water 2:1). During lean season, the occurrence of wax moth is
common and black ants may be attracted to sugar syrup. These enemies should be checked.
Feeding is to be stopped when the cells are full with the nectar.

Honey extraction

 Use bee escape board the previous day to clear off the bees in the super.
 Use the bee brush to remove any bees remaining on the frame.
 Do honey extraction in a bee proof room.
 De caps the wax seal of the honey comb using a decapping knife.
 Keep the decapped honey frames (2 or 4) inside the rack of the honey
extractor.
 Gently rotate the handle of the extractor to spin off the honey from the cells by
centrifugal force.
 DE caps the other side and repeat the extraction process.
 Filter the honey using a muslin cloth.

39
  Ripen the honey by heating it in a water bath at 60oC for 30 minutes.
 Store the cooled honey in clear glass / plastic jars and closes the lid tightly.
 Keep back the honey-extracted frames in the hive for the bees to clean by licking.
 Remove the super after the honey flow is over Leave enough honey for bees to tide
over the dread period.

Fig.2.15 Honey bottling

INSECT PEST & DISEASES OF HONEY BEE

o NATURAL ENIMIES: - Wax moth, Wasp, Black ant, Bee eating birds, Mites.

o DISEASES: - Nosema, Amoebic, Acarine.

 Bacterial Diseases:-Septicemea.

 Fungal Diseases: - Stone brood & chalk brood diseases.

40
 CONCLUSION

Beekeeping promotes economic self-reliance as it is less labor intensive and

hence can be a source of income for the poor rural households. This implies that
apiculture can be used as an alternative livelihood for the rural households along. The
governments and non-governmental organizations should, through the existing structures
promote beekeeping programmes through technical and financial capacitation to
apiculture farmers. Instead of over relying on agricultural activities which are often
exposed to drought stresses, the rural community can diversify their livelihoods by
engaging in apiculture. Beekeeping helps rural households to alleviate poverty in a
sustainable way and improve their livelihood. Given that apiculture fosters sustainable
use of forests, it follows that apiculture should top the list in government policies and
environmental and development organization programmes.

41
 UNIT -3
Food Processing

Fig 3.1:- Preparation of Jam

42
 Introduction to Agro based Industries
Agro-industry, i.e. the processing, preservation and preparation of agricultural production for
intermediate and final consumption, performs a number of crucial functions that support
development and poverty alleviation. Agriculture in connection with industry needs to be
recognized by senior-level policy makers and industry leaders as a competitive, value-adding
business sector that has a positive development impact and contributes to economic growth.
Rather than focusing on agricultural productivity only, policy makers must consider the
competitiveness of entire agro-producers and SMEs, enabling market access and developing a
supportive institutional environment. “Agro–based industries are those, which are involved in
supplying the farm with agricultural inputs besides handling the products of the farm.” (INDIA,
Famine Enquiry Commission, 1994)A common and traditional definition of agro-based industry
refers to the subset of manufacturing that processes raw material and intermediate products
derived from the agricultural sector. Agro-based industry thus means transforming products
originating from agriculture, forestry and fisheries .Indeed, a very large part of agricultural
production undergoes some degree of transformation between harvesting and final use. The
industries that use agricultural, fishery and forest products as raw material comprise a very varied
group. They range from simple preservation (such as sun drying) and operations closely related
to harvesting to the production, by modern, capital-intensive methods, of such articles as textiles,
pulp and paper.
Types of agro based industries
These are classified as food and non-food industries. The food industries are much more
homogenous and are easier to classify than the non-food industries since their products all have
the same end use. Most preservation techniques, for example, wither they are fruit, vegetable,
milk, meat or fish. The processing of the more perishable food products is to a large extent for
the purpose of preservation. Non-food industries, in contrast to the food industries, have a wide
variety of end users .Almost all non-food agricultural products require a high degree of
processing. Much more markedly than with the food industries, there is usually a definite
sequence of operations, leading through various intermediate products bedsore reaching the final
products. Because of value added at each of this successive stage of processing, the proportion
of the total cost represented by the original raw material diminishes steadily.
Items Level of Processing
Dairy products 37.00%
Meat 21.00%

43
Marine fish 10.70%
Poultry 6.00%
Fruits & Vegetables 1.80%
(Source: Ministry of Food Processing Industries)The Agro-processing industry can be
classified based on raw material or final products.
Classification of Agro-Processing industry based on raw material is shown in the given below:
S. No. Category (Based on Raw material)

Finished Products
1. Cereals Wheat Flour
Biscuit manufacturing
Rice (puffed and flaked)
Rice bran and Rice Bran oil
Canned baby corn
2. Pulses Based Industry Gram flour (Basen)
Nankeens
Papad
Whole or split Dal
3. Oilseed based Industry Edible oil
Animal feed
Processed Seed (Sesame)
4. Fruits and Veg. Based Industry Frozen fruits and vegetables
Chips and wafers (ready to eat snacks)
Dehydrated vegetables
Ketchups, Purees and concentrates
Juices
Pickles
5. Spices based Industry Pastes and Powders
Aromatic Extractions
6. Dairy Based Industry Skimmed milk powder, Ghee, Curd etc.

7. Floriculture Based Industry Fresh and Dried Flowers

8. Fisheries industry Fish processing

44
Fish Meal
Fish / Prawn Pickle
9. Livestock and poultry Processed Poultry Products
Meat Gravy Concentrates
Mutton and Limb Processing
10. Cotton and Jute Based Industry Fibres processing

11. Medicinal Herbs Based Industry Medicinal Prodcuts

12. Plantation Crops based Industry Tea Powder Coffee Powder
13. Sugarcane Based Industry Jaggery
Confectionary and bakery products
14. Others Honey
Mushrooms
PRESERVATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
Preservation is defined as the technique of exiting storage life of the produce deterioration in
edible quality for its future use.
It is based on minimizing damage by spoilage causing agents. The broad principles involved in
prevention of spoilage of horticultural produce are as under:
Principle of Preservation:
• Prevention or Delay of microbial decomposition:
• By keeping out microorganism
• By killing microorganism
• By hindering the growth of microorganism
• Prevention or delay of self-decomposition of food
• By inhibiting or inactivating enzymatic activity
• By Prevention or delay of chemical reaction
• Prevention or minimizing damage by insect-pest and disease
• Prevention or delay of microbial decomposition
• By keeping out microorganism Keeping microorganism out from entering into food is term
asepsis. Use of clean vessels, utensils, knives, maintaining hygienic condition while preserving
etc. are the ways of asepsis.
Packaging of the produce under proper packaging condition is a strong way of asepsis. By acting
as barrier of entry, packaging helps in keeping the microorganisms out of the food.

45
• By killing microorganisms
Sterilization: The entire microorganism is completely destroyed by high temperature. Fruits and
tomato products which are highly acidic in nature are sterilized at a temperature of 100 0 C for
30 minutes. Vegetables, which are non-acidic in nature and remain in close proximity to the soil,
are sterilized at a temperature of 116 0 C for 30-90 minutes. Cans and bottles are sterilized for
about 30minutes by placing them in boiling water.
Note: Recently irradiation is used to inactivate the micro organism and preserve the food. As
the irradiation is independent of heat treatment, it is termed as cold sterilization. Mostly, gamma
rays are used for irradiation purpose.
• By hindering the growth of microorganisms
• By low temperature: Low temperature increases lag phase of growth and count the
multiplication of microorganism in the food. Low temperature is provided by cellar storage,
Refrigeration and Freezing.
• By drying/dehydration: Drying is applied in case of removal of moisture under natural
sunlight.Dehydration is practiced under controlled conditioned of temperature and humidity at
initial temperature of 43 0 C raised to 60-66 0 C in case of vegetables and 66-71 0 C in case of
fruits. The vegetables are dried to 6-8% moisture level and fruits to 10-20% moisture level.
By chemicals:
• Sulphur dioxide: It is effective against bacteria and mould and used in the preservation of juice,
squash, cordial, nectar etc. Potassium metabisulphite (K 2 O.2SO 2) is commonly used asa source
of sulphur dioxide.It is more effective against yeast. In the long term run, benzoic acid may
darken the product. Itis, therefore, mostly used in colored products of tomato, phalsa, jamun,
pomegranate, plum,watermelon, strawberry, colored graped etc.
• Prevention or Delay of self-decomposition of food:
• By inhibiting or inactivating enzymatic activity:
Enzyme activity inside the horticultural produce is prevented by subjecting them blanching
treatment. Blanching is known by scalding or precooling or parboiling. It is achieved by
subjecting
the produce to boiling water or steam treatment for 2-5 minutes.
• By prevention or delay of chemical reactions
Chemical reaction inside the food is prevented by preventing oxidation reaction by using anti-
oxidant. Sulphur dioxide is widely used preservative for anti-oxidative property. It is
commonly
used in the preservation of juice, pulp, cordial, nectar and other types of product.

46
3) Prevention or minimizing damage by insect pests and diseases
Prevention of damage by disease, require care in almost all process of processing.
Excessive humidity in the produce as well as under storage condition, inadequate and faulty
processing, unhygienic situation etc. may lead to damage by diseases.
Methods of Food Preservation
Physical Methods:
• Refrigeration: foods are preserved at a temperature of 0 0 C to 5 0 C.
• Freezing: temperature of -18 to -40 0 C reduces the growth of microorganisms and enzyme
activity is also reduced.
• Pasteurization: foods are heated at boiling water temperature, under pasteurization method.
• Sterilization: foods are held at a temperature higher than 100 0 C. Through this method.
• Drying and dehydration: in this method, attempts are made to remove the moisture. Removal
of moisture prevents the growth of spoilage causing microorganism in the food.
• Irradiation: Irradiation is very potent mode of prevention of spoilage of food. The reaction
between ion particle and food forms the basis of prevention of spoilage of food, through this
method.

Chemical Methods:
• Salt: Salt at a concentration of 15-20% is used for preservation of food.
• Sugar: Any product containing 65% or more sugar can be kept in good condition for longer
period.
• Vinegar: contains acetic acid and it turns the medium acidic. Acidic medium does not favor the
growth of many microorganisms. Food containing 1-5% acetic acid solution can be kept fresh
for longer time.
• Potassium metabisulphite and sodium benzoate: used widely for preservation of foods. Juices,
Squashes, RTS, Nectar, Sauces and Ketchup etc. are preserved using chemical preservatives.

47
 Preparation of Jam, Jelly and Squash
Jam
It is product prepared from pulp of fruits after cooking with sufficient quantity of sugar to a
reasonably thick consistency. As per FPO (order; 1995) specification, it contains 68% TSS and
45% portion of prepared fruits.
Suitable fruits: Guava, Ber, Plum, Pear, Peach, Apple, Mango, Papaya
Apple Jam
Ingredients
• Apple 4 kg
• Sugar 2.5 kg
• Water 500 ml
• Citric acid 30 gm
• Color 2 gm
• Fragrance 6 ml
• Sodium Benzoate 3 gm
• Jar (500gm)
Fig 3.2 Botteled Jam

Process of preparation
Wash the apples

Extraction of pulp from the fruit

Adding of sugar

Boiling (with continuous stirring)

Addition of citric acid.

Judging of end point by checking Tss (68)

48
 Filling hot into sterilized glass bottles.

Capping of the bottles after cooling

Storage (at ambient temperature)

Jelly
It is a semi-transparent product prepared from clear extract of pectin containing fruit after
cooking with sufficient quantity of sugar. As per FPO specification, jelly should have 65%
TSS and 45% portion of fruit juice.
Guava Jelly

Ingredients (for 3 kg)

• Guava (riped) 3 kg

• Sugar 2 kg

• Water 2 liters

• Citric acid 20 gm

• Jar (500 gm) 6

Process of Preparation
Wash the guava and cut it in circular pieces, now add water up to which it gets over the pieces,
and cook for about 40-45 minutes. When it gets soft then filter it with the help of clean cloth.
In obtained extract, add sugar and again cook for obtaining a boil of it.

After mixing of sugar again filter the extract (removal of foam or scum). The filtered extract
should be put in aluminum container and kept in flame for boiling of it after cooking for 15
minutes, adding of citric acid is done

49
 Judging end point

By sheet or flake method, where a small portion of jelly is taken out from cooking
container/pan using spoon. It should be drop. If jelly drops in form of sheet in contrast to
drooping at once, it is considered that jelly is ready.

It is removed from the fire and filled in bottles.

Squash
It is a concentrated beverage prepared from juice of fruits after mixing it with strained sugar syrup
and preservatives. As per FPO specifications, squash contains 25% fruit juice and 40-50% TSS.
Alsopossesses, 1.0ppm acid and 350 ppm sulphur dioxide or 600ppm sodium benzoate. It is diluted
before serving.

Orange Squash

Ingredients (for 4 kg)

• Oranges 2 kg

• Sugar 2 kg

• Water 1 litre

• Citric acid 30 gm

• KMS powder 4 gm

• Color 2 gm

• Glass jar (750 ml) 4 Fig 3.3 Bottled Squash

• Fragrance 5 ml

Process of preparation
Make Sugar syrup where addition of sugar in water is to be done and kept under flame for obtaining a
boil, then it should be filtered with clean cloth and kept around.

50
Now cut the oranges and extract the juice in the container and add 2 spoon of sugar, now filter the
juice extract and this juice into the prepared cooled sugar syrup.

Now add color and KMS powder along with some quantity of water, at last add fragrance and kept
the prepared squash in the glass jars and cover with the air-tight lids.

METHOD OF PREPARATION OF MIXED PICKLE

 Clean and Slice all the vegetables into convenient pieces.
 Boil the vegetables for 20 minutes.
 Strain and spread the vegetables on a cloth and sundry for 2-3 hours.
 Grind ginger, garlic and onion into a fine paste and fry in oil until it turns to
goldenbrown colour.
 Take off the fire and add all the dry ingredients (powders and
vegetables)and remaining oil to the mixture of fried ginger, garlic and
onion.
 Allow the mixture to cool.
 Make sugar syrup and add vinegar to it.
 Add the vinegar sugar syrup mixture to the vegetable mix.
 Mix well and put in wide mouthed glass jar.
 Tie a muslin cloth on the jar keep it in sun for 4-5 days.

Fig 3.4:- Mixing of pickle

Method of preparation of amla murabba
 Wash the fruit.
 Prick amla with a fork.
 Dissolve 1tbs lime in water and soak the amla overnight .Remove and wash
well repeat once more then drain and wash the amla thoroughly.
 Boil the water then add amla for 5 minutes cook till tender and transparent.

51
  Drain it and keep a side then after make sugar syrup in 500ml of water.
 Check the consistency of one thread, skimming off any scum that
keeps forming.
Add amla, bring to boil and simmer for 4-5minutes then let it cool and
store in a clean air tight container cardamom is add if we wanted flavor.

FOOD SAFETY AND STANDARDS AUTHORITY OF INDIA

The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has been established under
Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 which consolidates various acts & orders that have
hitherto handled food related issues in various Ministries and Departments. The Ministry of
Health & Family Welfare, Government of India is the Administrative Ministry for the
implementation of FSSAI. The Chairperson and Chief Executive Officer of Food Safety and
Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) have already been appointed by Government of India.
The Chairperson is in the rank of Secretary to Government of India. FSSAI has been
mandated by the FSS Act, 2006 for performing the following functions:
 Framing of Regulations to lay down the Standards and guidelines in relation to articles
of food and specifying appropriate system of enforcing various standards thusnotified.
 Laying down mechanisms and guidelines for accreditation of certification bodies
engaged in certification of food safety management system for food businesses.
 Laying down procedure and guidelines for accreditation of laboratories and notification
ofthe accredited laboratories.
 To provide scientific advice and technical support to Central Government and State
Governments in the matters of framing the policy and rules in areas which have a
direct or indirect bearing of food safety and nutrition.

53
 CONCLUSION
Fruits and vegetables are harvest- dependent seasonal products, available only
during certain periods of the year, and characterized by a limited storage life. Therefore,
they are often preserved in order to be able to supply fruits and vegetables throughout the
year. Preservation refers to any treatment to increase the storage life. Preservation of fruits
and vegetables is an important sectors for the people of Uttarakhand. Most fruits and
vegetables are seasonal and perishable therefore these are often made into finished products
like jam, squash and pickles. Preserving the surplus food that is often available at harvest
time lime helps ensure a continuous supply of food throughout the year. There are several
methods of food preservation including canning, freezing, pickling, drying and curing
(smoking or salting).

54
 .UNIT-4

SOCIO ECONOMIC SURVEY

Fig-4.1 Survey group photo

55
 INTRODUCTION

 Socioeconomics is the field of study that examines social and economic factors to better
understand how the combination of both influences something.
 The goal of Socio-economic study is to bring about socioeconomic development in terms
of understanding the present condition of a particular area.
 Socioeconomic study of villages is mainly for understanding the present condition of
villages regarding the lifestyle, education status, health status, dependency on forest,
water hazards, food scarcity and overall development of rural areas.
 To observe inter-relationships between environmental and socioeconomic
conditions in certain areas that includes forest, rivers, climatic conditions etc .
 To know about the dependency of villagers on farming and about the type of crops,
cultural practices, crop composition etc .
 To find innovative solutions for socially, economically or environmentally based
issues and to satisfy the needs of members and users which have been ignored or
inadequately fulfilled by the private or public sectors

OBJECTIVES
To assess the social status of the village i.e. education, health care, rural poverty
alleviation, agriculture status, cattle rearing, forest produce, employment etc.
To study the relationship between villagers and nearby forest.
To study about the specific constraints related to the development of the village.
SITE DESCRIPTION

Table:- 1 Site Description

56
  Village Dunga is located at the north-west direction of District Dehradun of
StateUttarakhand.
 Dunga village is approximately 20 km from the main Dehradun city.
 Village is 85% surrounded by forest which includes the important tree species of :
Shorea robusta (Sal).With associated species like:

Mallotus phillipinesis (Lal kamal,kamela),

Syzyium cumini (Jamun),

Grevelia robusta (Silver oak),

Grewia optiva (Bhimal),

Anogeissus latifolia (Axelwood, Dhau),

Terminaliaspp. etc.

 Different varieties of wild fauna:

Munjtak (Barking Deer, Kakar),

Leopard (Guldaar),

Rabbit,

Wild boar,

Monkey etc.

 A small stream named Swarna flows along the village.

Fig.4.2 Map of Dehradun showing study area location.

57
SAMPLING PROCEDURE
 Simple random sampling technique was adopted for selecting the samples.
 Firstly a complete list of households of the village Dunga prepared.
 Total number of families were 200 and 10% were selected as sampling units.
 Thus a total number of 20 Households were selected randomly for study.

Table 2: CATEGORY OF FARMERS ACCORDING TO AVERAGE LAND HOLDING

Landholding Status
Landless Small Mariginal Medium Large

35% 25%

25%

Fig 4.3:- Landholding Status

 Highest number of farmers in the village were Medium farmers.

 Small and Marginal farmers contributed 25% of the total land holding status.
 Landless farmers were having 10% of the total land.
 Category with minimum land holding capacity was Large farmers i.e. 5%.

58
SOCIAL STATUS OF VILLAGERS AT VILLAGE (DUNGA)

Table:-3 Social Status of Village

Fig:3

Fig:- 4.4 Occupation

 20% were Government servants and 20% were working as Wage labors.
 10% were Self employed and 10% were working in Private sectors.
 40% of the villagers were involved in farming.

59
  Villagers used to rear Cow as the main cattle which contributed as 74%. They rear it
for milk and gain some money to support their livlihood.
 Next cattle was Buffalo which contributed 16% of the total population.
 Ten percent of the total population was the goat population.

Fig :- 4.5 Cow and Buffalo

CROPPING PATTERN AT DUNGA VILLAGE

Table:-4 Cropping Pattern

♫ Wheat and Rice were the most important crops cultivated by the farmers at Dunga village.
♫ FYM (Farm Yard Manure) was mostly used as fertilizer for the better working of soil as
well as growth of the crop.
♫ Other than this urea was the first choice used by the farmers.

60
Table:- 5 Average Consumption Of Forest Product According Farmer’s Category

FUEL WOOD CONSUMPTION:-

Minimum consumption was by the Marginal farmers with an annual consumption of
1.4 tonne/year.
Second minimum consumption was by the Medium farmers that was 1.9 tonne/year.
2.15 tonne/year was used by the small farmers, 2.48 tonne/year by landless farmers.
3.6 tonne/year was consumption by the Large Farmers which was maximum.

FODDER CONSUMPTION:-
Minimum i.e. 1.48 tonne/year was done by Landless Farmers.
2.5tonne/year by the small farmers, 2.5 tonne/year by the Marginal Farmer.
Minimum consumption was by the Landless farmers.
4.8 tonne/year by the Medium Farmers, which was the Maximum consumption.

61
ENERGY CONSUMPTION BY THE VILLAGERS

Table:- 6 Energy Consumption By The Village

ENERGY CONSUMPTION
► Most of the households were dependent primarily on LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas)
cylinders for Cooking.
► But the main constraint was unavailability of Gas supply.
► Than firewood plays the main role which was obtained mainly from nearby Forest and
utilized for coking as well as heating purpose.

VISIT TO BEAT OFFICE NEAR THE VILLAGE

Fig:- 4.6 Visit To Beat Office Near The Village

62
  Beat office named Bakrana Beat with Dunga Forest Chowki covers 5 village
Panchayats.
 Villagers went inside the forest area for firewood and fodder.
 Villagers were allowed to collect grasses and firewood from the ground in the form of
fallen branches.
 Wild animals destroy 90% of the crops specially monkeys and wild boars and this was
the common problem of the village.

HEAD OF THE VILLAGE DUNGA (Sarpanch or Pradhaan)

• There were 200 houses in the village with a total population of 775.
• Basic needs for livlihood was present there as water supply, electricity supply, roads,
Primary and Secondary school, health care centre.
• For their livelihood, 10-15% of the total population was totally dependent on Forest.

Fig:- 4.7 Health Care Centre

Roads

Fig:- 4.8 Village Road

63
 Only 5-10% of the population was involved in Cattle Rearing.
 Agriculture was the main occupation adopted by the villagers.
 The main agricultural crops were Wheat and Rice.
 Only few of them prefer to cultivate Maize.
 Agroforestry system was very rare in the village, only Agri-horticulture system was
observed.
 Project work by NABARD for better irrigation system was going on.

Fig:-4.10 Irrigation Department

64
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
• Primary as well as Secondary school is maintained with good building structure.
• Total number of students in school are as follows :
Primary School = 55

Secondary School = 150

• Sarva Shiksha Abhiyanwas going on in the schools.

• Students got Mid-Day Meal facility during lunch time.

Fig:-4.10 Primary School students

Fig: 4.11 Primary School

65
 Survey Photos

Fig 4.12:- Primary School Fig 4.13:- Family 1

Fig 4.14:- Family 2 Fig 4.15:- Laxmipur Village

66
 CONCLUSION
♦ Basic facilities like electricity, water supply and toilets are enjoyed by the overall
population, which is a point of appreciation.
♦ School facility that is both primary and secondary is available, however the dissatisfaction
of some people is a different thing.
♦ Health care centre with a well qualified doctor is present.
♦ Village is easily approachable from the nearby town.
♦ Maximum number of population is dependent on farming as the main occupation.
♦ Maximum people at village are literate.
Results clarify about the dependency of village people on the forest due the
unavailability of life sustaining commodities.
♣ To overcome the problems with respect to forest, a beat office is present near the village
which covers a system of 5 village panchayats.
♣ Nearby Sal forest a boon to the village, as the villagers obtained most of the important facilities
like Fuelwood for cooking as well as heating. Fodder for cattle. Medicinal plants from the forest.
Some important constraints regarding the development were also known.
► No special project such as TRYSEM (Training of Rural Youths for Self-Employment),
JRY (Jawahar Rozgar Yojna) etc. was carried out.
► NAREGA (National Rural Employment Guaranty Act) was started but remained
uncompleted.
► Non availability of KVK (Krishi Vigyan Kendra) services, Post office, Bank etc.
► No special step had been taken yet to control the increasing effect of wild animals.
 The study reveals that dependent of people on local forest is resulting in rapid
depletion of forest resources as well as deteriorating the peaceful environment of the
village.
 Fodder and fuel wood plantations should be established on terraced land under an
agro-silvicultural system.
 By this, pressure on forest can be reduced for which a proper understanding of the
socioeconomic necessities of the rural population is essential.

67
 SUMMARY
Rural Agricultural Work Experience is a significant Project being needed in fractional
fulfillment of the degree course of B.Sc. (Agriculture). I being a student of B.Sc.
(Agriculture) VIIIth semester got the chance to complete this venture by choosing the four-
specific subject:
 FOOD PROCESSING
 MUSHROOM CULTIVATION
 APICULTURE
 SOCIO ECONOMIC SURVEY
Through this project I have gained a lot both theoretically and practically. The
information provided by the experts is very helpful and boost our knowledge to a great
level. It also provides us more knowledge by showing practically the newly developed
technique Mushroom is also called white vegetables or boneless vegetarian meat contains
ample amounts of proteins, vitamins, fibers, and medicines. Mushroom contains 20- 35%
protein (dry weight) which is higher than those of vegetables and fruits and is of superior
quality. It is considered ideal for patients of hypertension and diabetics. In Socio
Economic Studies, I got to know different farmers, their own unique method of
cultivation, traditional varieties of several crops and their cultivation methods. I also got
to know the different difficulties faced by the farmers and some of their own solutions for
the problems. All the farmers cooperated with the survey and provided all the necessary
information without any hesitation.
Fruits and vegetables are harvest- dependent seasonal products, available only during
certain periods of the year, and characterized by a limited storage life. Therefore, they are
often preserved in order to be able to supply fruits and vegetables throughout the year.
Preservation refers to any treatment to increase the storage life. Preservation of fruits and
vegetables is an important sector for the people of Uttarakhand. Most fruits and
vegetables are seasonal and perishable therefore these are often made into finished
products like jam, squash and pickles. From many viewpoints viz. employment
generation among rural youths and tribal population, producing valuable products like,
honey, beeswax, pollen, propolis, venom and royal jelly and above all increasing the
yields qualitatively and quantitatively, of various agricultural and horticultural crops,
beekeeping has to be developed on priority basis. Apiculture and Agriculture are
interdependent and cannot develop in isolation.

68
 REFERENCES

FOOD PROCESSING
Food processing & Technology , NCERT.
Food processing handbook,Wiley,2012,Granndison and Bernan.
Principle of food processing[Denis R Heldman and Richard W Hatel].
Food preservation & processing center, Premnagar.
Food processing and value addition guide ( KVK ALLEPPY).

APICULTURE
A text book of applied entomology [KP Srivastava and JS Dhainav].
A text book of entomology (Dr. Mathur,Dr Uppdhay).
Apiculture and Beekeeping simplified(Brett Jones).
Farm friend„s bee guide by HORTICORP KERALA .
How to care bees manual (KVK Alleppy).

MUSHROOM CULTIVATION
Bahl Nita (2002).
Handbook of Mushrooms. Kapoor J.N (2004).
Mushrooms Cultivation manual (DMR).
Farmers mushroom guide(KVK ALLEPPY) .
www.nhb.gov.in

SOCIO ECONOMIC SURVEY

District census hand manual,vikas nagar.

Gram pradhan
www.census 2011.co.in
Questionnaire direct to farmer.

69