ENGLISH AND

MIGRATION
CHAPTER 2
THE POLITICS OF ENGLISH (BOOK 3)
 INTRODUCTION
MAIN POINTS

How is migration defined

Reasons for migration
Role of language, especially English, in migration.
The function of language in citizenship tests.
Migrant identities and language practices
The influence of migrants on the language of public signs within the urban
landscapes.
 INTRODUCTION
MAIN POINTS

1. What is Migration? Definition + Pattern and motivations

- Long term vs. short term
- voluntary vs. forced migration (refugees)
- chain migration Reasons for migration: status, prestige, improved employment prospects, environmental, economic and political reasons
2. Languages in migration: Minority or community languages + Dominant language + Heritage language (2 nd or 3rd generations)
3. Citizenship and language tests (gaining residency and qualifying for citizenships): aims: evaluative lang. proficiency and assess knowledge of
national history and culture + Reasons (help integrate into the community, support social cohesion and screen out threat to society) +
Objections (3 points)
4. Migration groups (refugees + ex-colonies + female workers)
5. Identity issues (realignment of identities (self-selected) + ethno-linguistic clusters/ ethnic enclaves
6. Results of multi-lingualism (dynamic bilingualism/ hybrid identities/ code-mixing/code switching= Global identity)
7. Unban space/ linguistic landscapes (public signage)
 INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS MIGRATION?

 I don’t remember my country, I was born in Germany, but my parents came from
Somalia. We left Germany before I was two years old so I can’t speak German. I can
speak Somali because my parents speak to me … but I cannot read and write it. My
parents talk a lot about home but for me Somalia is very far away, I can only imagine it
when I listen to my parents talk about it … when I look at the family photographs. For me
home is where I am … I have lived here now for 12 years and I think of London as my
home.

(14-year-old pupil in a London school, quoted in Rassool, 2004, p. 208)

 INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS MIGRATION?

 The movement of people or groups from one country or area to settle in another. (p.
47)
 ‘transnational migration’ involves movement between nations. It implies a degree of
permanent stay.

 English is instrumental not only in bringing people together through migration but
also in the negotiation of relationships often characterized by cultural differences,
power inequality and conflict of interests.
 INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS MIGRATION? P. 50
MIGRATION FLOW IN THE WORLD TODAY (2009)
 INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS MIGRATION?

 What are the different countries that you may migrate to?
 Why would you migrate?
 Has the direction of migration always been to Anglophone countries (what about from
Britain? – when? )
 How has migration been defined? (p.49 – Kerswill and the UN)
 INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS MIGRATION?

 English from ex-British colonies have brought new varieties of English back to the
UK, or to other Anglophone countries.
 Proficiency in English determines who migrates, why and where. English can
facilitate migration because of its status as global lingua franca.
 INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS MIGRATION?
IDENTITY ISSUES

Where people feel ‘at home’ depends on personal, social and political issues, as well as
demographic characteristics, e.g. age, and gender.
Migrants may crave out new multilingual identities which reflect complex
backgrounds.
 ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
WHAT IS MIGRATION – PATTERNS AND MOTIVATIONS

What is the role of English in different migration contexts? (p.51 – Inner circle, outer circle, expanding
circles)
What are the different patterns of migration?
Long term vs. short term (p.49)
Short term migration includes students and seasonal workers.
Long-term migration includes among others Europeans who went to America in 20 th
Century to start a new life.
Migrants have always kept in touch with and often returned to their countries of origin..
They can migrate alone or with their extended families.
 ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
WHAT IS MIGRATION – PATTERNS AND MOTIVATIONS
WHAT ARE THE REASONS FOR MIGRATING?

• My family’s history of migration is complex. My husband’s and my grandparents migrated

from India to South Africa during the mid-to late 1800s. The fact that my grandparents, who
were Urdu speakers, had been educated through the medium of English played a major part in
their decision to migrate to South Africa, and it meant that they were able to settle in their new
country relatively quickly and set up businesses. During the 1970s my family and I migrated to
the UK for political reasons related to the struggle against apartheid in South Africa. Again, the
fact that we were fluent English speakers played an important part in the choice to settle in the
UK. However, despite the role played by English in our decision, maintaining other languages
(such as Urdu and Afrikaans, which I learnt in South Africa) remains important to me.
(P. 51)
ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
WHAT IS MIGRATION – PATTERNS AND MOTIVATIONS

What are the reasons for migrating?

Migration status of Asian countries
• 1 Labour sending – Bangladesh, China, Indonesia, Nepal, Philippines, Sri Lanka,
Vietnam
• 2 Labour sending and receiving – India, Malaysia, Pakistan, Thailand
• 3 Labour receiving – Middle East, Brunei Darussalam, Taiwan (China), Japan, Republic
of Korea, Hong Kong SAR, Singapore
(Wickramasekera, 2002, p. 14, Box 3)
(P. 52)
ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
WHAT IS MIGRATION – PATTERNS AND MOTIVATIONS

What are the reasons for migrating?

The USA is the country of choice for the educational migration, but other destinations
include what Kachru (1982) refers to as Inner Circle English-speaking countries, such as
New Zealand, Australia and the UK, as well as Outer Circle English-speaking countries,
such as South Africa and Singapore. The drive for English which stimulates this
migration is associated with status, prestige and improved employment prospects, and
it demonstrates how migration may be directly influenced by people’s perception of the
importance of English and their desire that future generations of children acquire an
identity as English speakers.
 ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
WHAT IS MIGRATION –
WHAT ARE THE REASONS FOR MIGRATING?
There are other reasons – environmental, economic and political
These reasons include ‘pull factors’ (attractive factors which encourage people to move to a country) or ‘push factors’ (reasons to move
away from somewhere).
• Environmental factors, for example, people might choose to move to regions having a better climate and/or more arable land for
agriculture (pull factors).
• Economic reasons involve migrations from rural to urban areas as people are attracted by employment opportunities, higher incomes and
a better quality of life. Similarly, people from all over the world now migrate to countries such as the Gulf States in the Middle East
where incomes are generally higher and untaxed. In many developing countries, intense poverty is a major factor pushing people to
migrate to countries with a better standard of living than theirs.
• Political reasons people are forced to seek refuge abroad because of political factors such as ethnic, linguistic or religious discrimination
and persecution. For example, the 1970s witnessed large-scale migration of political exiles fleeing oppressive regimes in countries
including Chile, South Africa and parts of Eastern Europe, to settle in Western Europe, the USA and Canada. (Rassool, 2000)
 ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
WHAT IS MIGRATION – PATTERNS AND MOTIVATIONS

‘voluntary’ and ‘forced’ migration (p.54)

 people who migrate voluntarily and with some ability to choose where to migrate to, there are many factors which they may
consider. They are likely to feel that their ability to gain work and integrate into society depends on whether they can speak
and are literate in the dominant language of the new country. They may also feel that their children will more easily adapt to
schools and learning if they understand and/or are literate in the language of education in the adoptive country. Sharing a
common language, therefore, is an important factor in making choices about the country of migration. At the same time, of
course, parents might also be concerned about whether their children are able to continue learning a language that enables
them to maintain links with their own cultural heritage. Where there are members of their particular language communities
settled in the destination country, this becomes an important pull factor ( ‘chain migration’ ).
 However, for refugees, the country to which they migrate is likely to be decided by international politics as well as by
linguistic considerations.
 ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
WHAT IS MIGRATION – PATTERNS AND MOTIVATIONS
COMMUNITIES AND LANGUAGES P. 55
Minority or community languages of migrants (which may or may not be the languages
spoken in the home), e.g. Somalia (quote at the beginning)
Dominant language of the receiving society. English is the dominant language of the girl in the
quote at the beginning.
Heritage language tends to be used more specifically in relation to second-or third-generation
migrants who have shifted towards use of the dominant local language for most purposes but
who may wish to acquire a deeper knowledge of their family’s minority language.
As we shall see, in actual practice, migrants can move between these languages in fluid ways.
ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
WHAT IS MIGRATION – PATTERNS AND MOTIVATIONS

 On what basis would people in general choose

their migration destinations?
What are the most popular destinations? (p.53)
 What are some motivating factors? (51-53)
Sharing a common language is an important factor in making choices about the country of
migration. Another reason for the choice of the country is their chances to maintain links

with their own cultural heritage, e.g. other family members.

 ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
CITIZENSHIP AND LANGUAGE TESTS
 Who requires the citizenship tests? (p.55)
 What is the official aim of the citizenship test? (p.56)
 What does the English requirement serve?
 What are some differences between the Canadian and the USA language test
requirements? (pp.57-60)
 See pp. 151, 152, 153 in chapter 4 on IELTS, TOEFL & TOEIC (marketing, image,
purpose)
 ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
CITIZENSHIP AND LANGUAGE TESTS

Who requires the citizenship tests? (p.55)

Language fluency has become a major criterion for gaining residency and qualifying for citizenship. Citizenship
tests have been used in the USA, Canada, the UK and other European countries, New Zealand and Australia.

What is the official aim of the citizenship test? (p.56)

These tests aimed at evaluating language proficiency and assessing migrants’ knowledge of national history,
everyday life and culture.
Migrants to the UK, for example, have to pass the Life in the UK test. Figure 2.2 gives three questions taken from
the test (it requires studying).
The aim is to help migrants integrate into the new community, support social cohesion and screen out threat to
the society.
 ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
CITIZENSHIP AND LANGUAGE TESTS
 ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
CITIZENSHIP AND LANGUAGE TESTS
Objections to language tests:
McNamara and Shohamy (2008, p. 93) highlight three main objections:
1. People have the right to use a language of their choice and this right is violated when
governments impose a language on them.
2. Prior to migration, many migrants have no access to language classes or opportunities to
learn.
3. Migrants are capable of acquiring the language of the receiving society as and when the
need arises, and of using other languages to fulfill social duties such as voting or working.
 ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
CITIZENSHIP AND LANGUAGE TESTS

What are some differences between the UK, Canadian and

the USA language test requirements? (pp.57-60)
See pp. 151, 152, 153 in chapter 4 on IELTS, TOEFL &
TOEIC (marketing, image, purpose)
 ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
MULTILINGUAL RESOURCES IN A GLOBAL LABOR
MARKET

Linguistic capital was introduced as a concept in the previous chapter (exchanged eventually into economic capital)
What often happens when somebody migrates is that their linguistic abilities lose or gain in linguistic capital (p.61)
Different scenarios of status of migration groups:
• Refugees in the 1970’s & 1980’s (no English)
• vs. migrants from the ex-colonies during the 1940’s and 1950’s (elite members who were largely professional people,
including university graduates, teachers and medical practitioners – e.g. of Caribbean migrants and the value of their
English + attitudes towards variety) pp. 61-2). Problem in having a different variety of English- have to change their
accent.
• Female workers moving from countries where English is an official language (example of Philippinas in Taiwan p.63,
Reading A, esp.pp.80-1)
 ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
MULTILINGUAL RESOURCES IN A GLOBAL
LABOR MARKET
Linguistic capital vs. attitudes towards an English variety, e.g. Caribbean (p. 62). Problem in
having a different variety of English- have to change their accent. In a study conducted in 1997, a
member of the Caribbean community who arrived in the UK during the 1950s stated:

I consciously changed my accent because I felt so traumatized by comments such as ‘Nigger,

Nigger, pull the trigger, Bang! Bang! Bang!’ Although in St Lucia I was regarded as a bright pupil,
here they sent me to a remedial class because of my dialect … after a long period of destructive
rebellion I internalized my feelings and changed my speech register in order to belong.
(interviewee, quoted in Rassool, 1997, p. 196)
ST LUCIA- THE CARIBBEAN
 LANGUAGES AND MULTILINGUAL IDENTITIES
IN MIGRANT COMMUNITIES

 Realignment of identity – self selected identity mainly based on higher status of national languages of home
country as compared to local languages. (Bengali vs. rural variety)
Tension between, on the one hand, maintaining heritage languages in order to safeguard cultural identity, while
on the other hand, needing to become fluent and literate in the dominant local language as soon as possible in
order to obtain jobs and become integrated members of the receiving country.
• [The] emigrants had had little formal education before they left for Britain, and spoke very little, if any, English.
Their subsequent engagement in the family-based catering trade, which entails long working hours, has given them
few opportunities to learn and use English. … for most Chinese caterers there is hardly any social contact between
themselves and the society at large, apart from the waiter–customer relationship. It is possible for a Chinese kitchen
staff never to exchange a word with English-speaking people. … Chinese waiters learn only enough to handle the
menus and … fewer than 20% of them are able to hold a simple conversation in English. (Wei, 1994, p. 58)
 ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
LANGUAGES AND MULTILINGUAL IDENTITIES IN MIGRANT
COMMUNITIES

Integrating in the new society and language maintenance is an active process for many
immigrants, … including community school movements …

Different factors may encourage migrants to segregate (isolate) themselves from

mainstream communities. (p. 65)
•‘Chain migration’ is one reason, example clusters of Mexicans in California, Chinese in New
York, Irish people settled in areas north of London,… where people live in ethno-linguistic
clusters, or ‘ethnic enclaves’
•Working conditions (such as family businesses, long working hours, mainly because of lack of
formal education and therefore opportunities)
 ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
LANGUAGES AND MULTILINGUAL IDENTITIES IN MIGRANT
COMMUNITIES

Results of Multilingualism:
-- dynamic bilingualism
-- Hybrid identities
-- creative displays of code-mixing (see chapter 5 of Book 1 + example of pun on p.69)
-- and a tendency for code-switching p. 70
 ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
LANGUAGES AND MULTILINGUAL IDENTITIES IN MIGRANT
COMMUNITIES

Hybrid identities
That is, the everyday negotiation between different aspects of identity leads to the
development of hybrid identities – complex, multilingual, multicultural identities –
which involves adopting English while at the same time maintaining important cultural
aspects of their lives in previous countries. As one pupil in my study put it:
Well, my language is very important to me because it is a part of who I am. But you’ve also
got to know English very well in today’s world… to get a good job, get promotion … and
fit in better. If you don’t know English today you’ll have a hard time getting ahead.
(quoted in Rassool, 2004, p. 209)
 ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
LANGUAGES AND MULTILINGUAL IDENTITIES IN MIGRANT
COMMUNITIES

Code switching and global identity p. 70 (global citizen)

Our parents think we speak too much English. My friends and teachers think we
only speak Chinese, because we look Chinese. Nobody seems to understand who
we are. We speak both Chinese and English. That’s a fact. It’s easy to understand,
isn’t it? Why don’t people just leave us alone and let us speak whatever we can
speak! You told us we are bilinguals. I like that. I really want to be bilingual and I
want to be treated like a bilingual. I don’t speak Chinese only; I don’t speak English
only; I speak both! That’s who I am. That’s who we are.
(Lawson, quoted in Wei, 2011, p. 1228)
 ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
MULTILINGUAL SPACE AND LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE

 Urban space – Linguistic landscape p.71-76

The role of English
See pp.74-75 &
Reading B pp.84- 91 (89-91)
 ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
MULTILINGUAL SPACE AND LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE

 Urban space – Linguistic landscape p.71-76

• The study of public signage in global contexts – the linguistic landscape – is now seen by linguists as important
in understanding the role of language in global societies, particularly in urban environments. Signs are produced
and displayed by people for other people, and their language choices reflect the values and practices of the
immediate society, the migrant picture of the region and the country’s language policies. Unsurprisingly, there is
growing evidence that English occurs in signage around the world.
Look at the roles English can play in the linguistic landscapes of Outer and Expanding Circle countries, and what
this role tells us about the use of English – alongside other languages – in these contexts. Also look at the
impact that migrants have on the linguistic landscapes of Anglophone countries.
pp. 72-73
ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
MULTILINGUAL SPACE AND LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE
FIGURE 2.5 TOURISM BILLBOARDS IN THE ALGARVE, PORTUGAL (FROM TORKINGTON, 2008)
ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
MULTILINGUAL SPACE AND LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE
FIGURE 2.7 CHINATOWN IN MANHATTAN, NEW YORK
ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
MULTILINGUAL SPACE AND LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE
FIGURE 2.6 SIGN IN ENGLISH AND HINDI ON THE SOUTH HALL TRAIN STATION IN LONDON
ENGLISH AND MIGRATION
MULTILINGUAL SPACE AND LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE
SUNSHINE MARKET IN SOUTH SWEDEN: TRANSLITERATED INTO ARABIC AND PERSIAN SCRIPT
MULTILINGUAL SPACE AND LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE
SYMBOLIC USE OF ENGLISH: INDEXING VALUES ASSOCIATED WITH
GLOBALIZATION : ENGLISH AS DISCOURSE OF THE WORLD
ECONOMY: STOCKHOLM (SWEDEN)