CHAPTE

1
Problem Solving

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

1
Section 1.1 Inductive and Deductive
Reasoning

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

2
Inductive Reasoning

3
Inductive Reasoning
The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the
examination of specific examples is called inductive
reasoning. The conclusion formed by using inductive
reasoning is a conjecture, since it may or may not be
correct.

When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next

number in the list according to some pattern you have
observed, you are using inductive reasoning.
4
Example 1 – Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number

Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each

of the following lists.

a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ? b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?

Solution:
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding
number. Thus we predict that the next number in the list
is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.

5
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the

third numbers differ by 3.

It appears that the difference between any two numbers

is always 1 more than the preceding difference.

Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the next

number in the list will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.

6
Check your progress:
Consider the following procedure: Pick a number.
Multiply the number by 9, add 15 to the product, divide the
sum by 3, and subtract 5.
Complete the above procedure for several different
numbers. Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture
about the relationship between the size of the resulting
number and the size of the original number.

7
Counterexamples

8
Counterexamples
A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all
cases.

If you can find one case for which a statement is not true,
called a counterexample, then the statement is a false
statement.

In Example 4 we verify that each statement is a false

statement by finding a counterexample for each.

9
Example 4 – Find a Counterexample
Verify that each of the following statements is a false
statement by finding a counterexample.
For all numbers x:

Solution:
A statement may have many counterexamples, but we
need only find one counterexample to verify that the
statement is false.

a. Let x = 0. Then | 0 | = 0. Because 0 is not greater than 0,

we have found a counterexample.
Thus “for all numbers x, | x | > 0” is a false statement.
10
Example 4 – Solution cont’d

b. For x = 1 we have 12 = 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1,

we have found a counterexample. Thus “for all numbers
x, x2 > x” is a false statement.

c. Consider x = –3. Then . . Since 3 is not

equal to –3, we have found a counterexample. Thus “for
all numbers x, is a false statement.

11
Check your progress:

12
Question:
How many counterexamples are needed to prove that a
statement is false?

13
Deductive Reasoning

14
Deductive Reasoning
Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning.

Deductive reasoning is distinguished from inductive

reasoning in that it is the process of reaching a conclusion
by applying general principles and procedures.

15
Example 5 – Use Deductive Reasoning to Establish a Conjecture

Use deductive reasoning to show that the following

procedure produces a number that is four times the original
number.

Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add

6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.

16
Example 5 – Solution
Let n represent the original number.
Multiply the number by 8:
Add 6 to the product:

Divide the sum by 2:

Subtract 3:

We started with n and ended with 4n. The procedure given

in this example produces a number that is four times the
original number.

17
Inductive Reasoning vs.
Deductive Reasoning

18
Inductive Reasoning vs. Deductive Reasoning

In the next Example we will analyze arguments to determine

whether they use inductive or deductive reasoning.

19
Example 6 – Determine Types of Reasoning

Determine whether each of the following arguments is an

example of inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.

a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums

every other year. Last year the tree did not produce
plums, so this year the tree will produce plums.

b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate.

The contractor estimated that my home improvement will
cost $35,000. Thus my home improvement will cost
more than $35,000.

20
Example 6 – Solution
a. This argument reaches a conclusion based on specific
examples, so it is an example of inductive reasoning.

b. Because the conclusion is a specific case of a general

assumption, this argument is an example of deductive
reasoning.

21
Logic Puzzles

22
Logic Puzzles
Logic puzzles, similar to the one in Example 7, can be solved
by using deductive reasoning and a chart that enables us to
display the given information in a visual manner.

23
Example 7 – Solve a Logic Puzzle
Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has
a different occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist).
From the following clues, determine the occupation of each
neighbor.

1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before
the dentist.

2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the
editor.

3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.

4. The banker lives next door to Brian .

24
Example 7 – Solution
From clue 1, Maria is not the banker or the dentist. In the
following chart, write X1 (which stands for “ruled out by clue
1”) in the Banker and the Dentist columns of Maria’s row.

From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Write X2 (ruled out by

clue 2) in the Editor column of Sarah’s row.

25
Example 7 – Solution cont’d

We know from clue 1 that the banker is not the last to get
home, and we know from clue 2 that Sarah is the last to get
home; therefore, Sarah is not the banker. Write X2 in the
Banker column of Sarah’s row.

From clue 3, Sarah is not the dentist. Write X3 for this

condition. There are now Xs for three of the four occupations
in Sarah’s row; therefore, Sarah must be the chef.
26
Example 7 – Solution cont’d

Place a in that box. Since Sarah is the chef, none of the

other three people can be the chef. Write X3 for these
conditions. There are now Xs for three of the four
occupations in Maria’s row; therefore, Maria must be the
editor.

Insert a to indicate that Maria is the editor, and write X3

twice to indicate that neither Sean nor Brian is the editor.
27
Example 7 – Solution cont’d

From clue 4, Brian is not the banker. Write X4 for this

condition. See the following table. Since there are three Xs
in the Banker column, Sean must be the banker.

Place a in that box. Thus Sean cannot be the dentist.

Write X4 in that box. Since there are 3 Xs in the Dentist
column, Brian must be the dentist. Place a in that box.
Sean is the banker, Maria is the editor, Sarah is the chef,
and Brian is the dentist. 28
29
30
31
32
33
Solve:

34
Collectibles

The cities of Atlanta, Chicago, Philadelphia, and San Diego held

conventions this summer for collectors of coins, stamps, comic books, and
baseball cards. From the following clues, determine which collectors met in
which city.

a. The comic book collectors convention was in August, as was the

convention held in Chicago.

b. The baseball card collectors did not meet in Philadelphia, and the coin
collectors did not meet in San Diego or Chicago.

c. The convention in Atlanta was held during the week of July 4, whereas
the coin collectors convention was held the week after that.

d. The convention in Chicago had more collectors attending

it than did the stamp collectors convention
35
 1.2
Section Problem Solving with
Patterns

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

36
Terms of a Sequence

37
Terms of a Sequence
An ordered list of numbers such as 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ...
is called a sequence. The numbers in a sequence that are
separated by commas are the terms of the sequence.

In the above sequence, 5 is the first term, 14 is the second

term, 27 is the third term, 44 is the fourth term, and 65 is
the fifth term.

The three dots “...” indicate that the sequence continues

beyond 65, which is the last written term. It is customary to
use the subscript notation an to designate the nth term of a
sequence.
38
Terms of a Sequence
We often construct a difference table, which shows the
differences between successive terms of the sequence.
The following table is a difference table for the sequence
2, 5, 8, 11, 14, ...

Each of the numbers in row (1) of the table is the difference

between the two closest numbers just above it (upper right
number minus upper left number). The differences in row
(1) are called the first differences of the sequence.
39
Terms of a Sequence
In this case, the first differences are all the same.

Thus, if we use the above difference table to predict the

next number in the sequence, we predict that 14 + 3 = 17 is
the next term of the sequence.

This prediction might be wrong; however, the pattern

shown by the first differences seems to indicate that each
successive term is 3 larger than the preceding term.

40
Terms of a Sequence
The following table is a difference table for the sequence
5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ...

In this table, the first differences are not all the same. In
such a situation it is often helpful to compute the successive
differences of the first differences. These are shown in row
(2).
41
Terms of a Sequence
These differences of the first differences are called the
second differences.

The differences of the second differences are called the

third differences.

To predict the next term of a sequence, we often look for a

pattern in a row of differences.

42
Example 1 – Predict the Next Term of a Sequence

Use a difference table to predict the next term in the

sequence.
2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207, ...

Solution:
Construct a difference table as shown below.

43
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

The third differences, shown in blue in row (3), are all the
same constant, 6. Extending row (3) so that it includes an
additional 6 enables us to predict that the next second
difference will be 36.

Adding 36 to the first difference 89 gives us the next first

difference, 125. Adding 125 to the sixth term 207 yields
332.

Using the method of extending the difference table, we

predict that 332 is the next term in the sequence.

44
nth-Term Formula for a Sequence

45
nth-Term Formula for a Sequence
In Example 1 we used a difference table to predict the next
term of a sequence.

In some cases we can use patterns to predict a formula,

called an nth-term formula, that generates the terms of a
sequence.

46
Example 2 – Find an nth-Term Formula
Assume the pattern shown by the square tiles in the
following figures continues.

a. What is the nth-term formula for the number of tiles in

the nth figure of the sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the eighth figure of the sequence?
c. Which figure will consist of exactly 320 tiles?

47
Example 2 – Solution
a. Examine the figures for patterns.

Note that the second figure has two tiles on each of the
horizontal sections and one tile between the horizontal
sections.
The third figure has three tiles on each horizontal
section and two tiles between the horizontal sections.
The fourth figure has four tiles on each horizontal
section and three tiles between the horizontal sections. 48
Example 2 – Solution cont’d

Thus the number of tiles in the nth figure is given by two

groups of n plus a group of n less one.
That is,
an = 2n + (n – 1)

an = 3n – 1

b. The number of tiles in the eighth figure of the sequence

is 3(8) – 1 = 23.

c. To determine which figure in the sequence will have 320

tiles, we solve the equation 3n – 1 = 320.
49
Example 2 – Solution cont’d

3n – 1 = 320
3n = 321 Add 1 to each side.

n = 107 Divide each side by 3.

The 107th figure is composed of 320 tiles.

50
51
The Fibonacci Sequence

52
The Fibonacci Sequence
Here is a statement of Fibonacci’s rabbit problem.

At the beginning of a month, you are given a pair of

newborn rabbits. After a month the rabbits have produced
no offspring; however, every month thereafter, the pair of
rabbits produces another pair of rabbits.

The offspring reproduce in exactly the same manner. If

none of the rabbits dies, how many pairs of rabbits will
there be at the start of each succeeding month?

53
The Fibonacci Sequence
The solution of this problem is a sequence of numbers that
we now call the Fibonacci sequence.

The following figure shows the numbers of pairs of rabbits

on the first day of each of the first six months.

The larger rabbits represent mature rabbits that produce

another pair of rabbits each month.

The numbers in the blue region—1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8—are the

first six terms of the Fibonacci sequence.

54
The Fibonacci Sequence

55
The Fibonacci Sequence
Fibonacci discovered that the number of pairs of rabbits for
any month after the first two months can be determined by
adding the numbers of pairs of rabbits in each of the two
previous months.

For instance, the number of pairs of rabbits at the start of

the sixth month is 3 + 5 = 8.

A recursive definition for a sequence is one in which each

successive term of the sequence is defined by using some
of the preceding terms.

56
The Fibonacci Sequence
If we use the mathematical notation Fn to represent the nth
Fibonacci number, then the numbers in the Fibonacci
sequence are given by the following recursive definition.

57
Example 3 – Find a Fibonacci Number
Use the definition of Fibonacci numbers to find the seventh
and eighth Fibonacci numbers.

Solution:
The first six Fibonacci numbers are 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, and 8. The
seventh Fibonacci number is the sum of the two previous
Fibonacci numbers.

Thus,
F7 = F6 + F5

=8+5

= 13 58
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

The eighth Fibonacci number is

F8 = F7 + F6

= 13 + 8

= 21

59
Section 1.3 Problem-Solving Strategies

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

60
Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy

61
Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a
study of problem solving was George Polya (1887–1985).
He was born in Hungary and moved to the United States in
1940.

The basic problem-solving strategy that Polya advocated

consisted of the following four steps.

62
Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
In Example 1 we apply Polya’s four-step problem-solving
strategy to solve a problem involving the number of routes
between two points.

63
Example 1 – Apply Polya’s Strategy
Consider the map shown in Figure 1.2. Allison wishes to
walk along the streets from point A to point B. How many
direct routes can Allison take?

City Map
Figure 1.2

64
Example 1 – Solution
Understand the Problem: We would not be able to
answer the question if Allison retraced her path or traveled
away from point B.

Thus we assume that on a direct route, she always travels

along a street in a direction that gets her closer to point B.

65
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Devise a Plan: The map in

Figure 1.2 has many extraneous
details.

City Map
Figure 1.2

Thus we make a diagram that

allows us to concentrate on the
essential information. See the
figure at the right.
A simple diagram of the
street map in Figure 1.2
66
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Because there are many routes, we consider the similar but

simpler diagrams shown below.

Simple street diagrams

The number at each street intersection represents the

number of routes from point A to that particular intersection.

67
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Look for patterns. It appears that the number of routes to

an intersection is the sum of the number of routes to the
adjacent intersection to its left and the number of routes to
the intersection directly above.

For instance, the number of routes to the intersection

labeled 6 is the sum of the number of routes to the
intersection to its left, which is 3, and the number of routes
to the intersection directly above, which is also 3.

68
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Carry Out the Plan: Using the pattern discovered earlier in

the example, we see from the figure below that the number
of routes from point A to point B is 20 + 15 = 35.

A street diagram with the number

of
routes to each intersection labeled

69
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Review the Solution: Ask yourself whether a result of 35

seems reasonable.

If you were required to draw each route, could you devise a

scheme that would enable you to draw each route without
missing a route or duplicating a route?

70
Solve the magic square

71