DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN

LOCOMOTION ACROSS
LIFESPAN

FRANCIS FRIMPONG
 Objectives

■ Describe different types of movements that occur

in infancy.
■ List different infantile reflexes and postural
reactions.
■ Explain the relationship between infants’ early
and later movements.
■ Describe motor milestones.
Growth & Developmental Age
Periods
INFANCY EARLY MIDDLE LATE
CHILDHOOD CHILDHOOD CHILDHOOD

 Neonate  Toddler  School age  Adolescent

Birth to 1 1 - 3 years 6–12 years 13–. 18 years
month (approx.)

 Infant  Preschool
1 month–1 3–6 years
year
 HOW INFANTS MOVE
■ Spontaneous Movements
Infants’ movements that occur without any apparent stimulation

– Supine Kicking, and Walking

■ Rhythmical and coordinated muscle pattern
■ Unison movement of ankle, knee and hip joints
– Becomes more sequential by age 1.
■ Positioning and timing similar to adult walking.
■ Cocontraction: both flexors and extensors activated

– Spontaneous Arm Movements

■ Well coordinated extension of elbow, wrist and finger joints.
■ Less rhythmical and repetitious
■ Not identical as adult reaching movements
Similarities in Infant Supine Kicks and Adult
Walking
SUPINE KICKS ADULT WALKING
 How infants move cont’d

■ Infantile Reflexes
Involuntary specific movement response to a specific
stimulus that is seen only during infancy
– Primitive Reflexes
• Stronger in newborns at births – lost around 4th month.

• Responses to specific external stimuli

• Reflexive movements are localized and specific

• Same stimulus will elicit a specific reflex consistently.

 How infants move cont’d

– Postural Reactions or Gravity Reflexes

• Enable the infant to automatically maintain posture in a
changing environment.
o Keeping head upright for opened breathing passage

o Rolling over and attaining vertical position

• Seen by 2 months upwards

• Partially disappear by 2nd year and reappear by school age

 How infants move cont’d

– Locomotor Reflexes
• Similar and related to voluntary movement.

• Seen earlier than corresponding voluntary behaviours

• Typically disappear months before infant attempts the

voluntary locomotor skill.
• The three locomotor reflexes are stepping, swimming, crawling
 Assessing development of motor skills
■ Normal development is a complex process with
multiple facets. However, it is convenient to understand
& assess development under the following domains.
– Gross motor development
– Fine motor skill development
– Personal & social development
– Language
– Vision & hearing.
 Gross motor development

■ Motor development progress in an orderly

sequence to ultimate attainment of locomotion &
more complex motor tasks thereafter.

■ From infancy, movement skills can be assessed as

follows.
Key gross motor skill development milestones
Age Milestone
3m Neck holding
5m Complete neck control, Rolls over
6m Sits with own support, can bear almost all his weight
8m Sitting without support
9m Standing holding on (with support)
12m Creep well, stand without support
15m Walks alone, creeps upstairs
18m Runs
2 yrs. Walks up and down stairs
3 yrs. Rides tricycle,
4yrs Hops on one foot, alternate feet going downstairs
 Fine motor skill development

■ Fine motor development shows neural tract

maturation. It promotes adaptive motion with fine
sensorimotor adjustments:

■ hand eye coordination, hand to mouth coordination,

hand skill- finger thumb apposition, grasping,
 Key fine motor skill development
milestones
Age Milestone
4m Reaching out for the objects with both hands
6m Reaching out for the objects with one hand
9m Immature pincer grasp
12m Pincer grasp mature
15m Imitates scribbling, tower of 2 blocks
18m Scribbles, tower of 3 blocks
2yrs Tower of 6 blocks, vertical and circular stroke
3yrs Tower of 9 blocks, copies circle
4yrs. Copies cross, bridge with blocks
5yrs. Copies triangle, gate with blocks
Locomotive Skills
 Crawling and creeping

■ Crawling with the chest and stomach on the floor

■ Low creeping with the stomach off the floor

■ Rocking back and forth in the high creep position

 Walking
TODDLER CHILDHOOD ADULTHOOD
• Each step is independent. • Pelvic rotation • Changes are on
individual basis.
• Knee flexion at midsupport.
• Shorter steps with little leg
• Changes are
and hip extension. • Foot contact with trunk-
mostly from
width base of support,
exercise injuries,
• Steps flat feet with toes • Synchronous arm swing, or change in
outward.
• Heal and foot strike body weights.
• Feet wide apart for lateral • Increased time of support for • Reduced step
balance. swinging length (3cm less)
• Reduced ankle
• Arms and hands carried • Improved rhythm and extension
high with flexed elbows coordination detectable up to • Diminished
age 5. pelvic rotation
 Rate controllers in Walking
■ Early
– Muscle strength
– Balance

■ Later
– Pain
– Balance and Fear
 Proficient walking pattern
■ Absolute stride length - Greater application of force
and greater leg extension at push-off.
■ Increased range of motion - Heel-then-forefoot
planting
■ Narrowed base of support – Reduced out-toeing
■ Pelvis rotate for full leg motion and oppositional
movement of other body segments
■ Improved balance with reduced forward trunk
inclination.
■ Relaxed oppositional arm-swing from the shoulder.
 Running
TODDLER CHILDHOOD ADULTHOOD
• Brief period of flight. • Refined running form • Increased stride
frequency.
• Limited range of motion. • Improved coordination
• Increased stride
• Absence of out-toeing length.
• Rear leg not fully extended.
• Improved stride length , • Incomplete
• Arms extend at elbow tucking of
• Arm swing forward and recovering leg
• Arms and thigh swing out backward.
rather than forward and • Fewer strides in
back. older adults
• Shorter stride
length.
 Rate Controllers in Running
■ Early
– Muscle strength
– Balance

■ Later
– Reduced desire and opportunities
– Pain/Sickness
– Balance and Fear
 Proficient Running Pattern
■ Increased stride length - Greater application of force
leading to:
– Full extension of rear leg
– Heel is tucked close to buttocks
– Forward thigh swing parallel
■ Narrowed base of support – Eliminated lateral movement
and out-toeing.
■ Trunk leans slightly forward and rotated for longer stride
and better arm-leg opposition.
■ Arms swing forward in opposition to legs, with elbows
near right angles.
 Jumping
EARLY JUMPING
• Trunk lean less than 30◦
• Legs flexed at takeoff
• Arms abducted
• Neck aligned
• Toes pulled off ground
• Arms parachute.
• Arms winging posture
• Trunk, knees and hips flex in
flight.
ADVANCED
• Deep preparatory crouch
• Neck is aligned
• Feet leave ground together
• Arms come forward
• Arms extended overhead at takeoff
• Hips and knees fully extended
• Trunk flexes
• Arms reach forward at landing
• Knee flexing leads hip flexion
• Two-foot landing
• Knees extended
 Proficient Jumping pattern
■ Preparatory crouch – to stretch muscles for max. force
■ Backward extension of arms with a vigorous swing forward to overhead
■ FOR HEIGHT
– Direct force downward with extended body throughout flight.
– Keep trunk relatively upright throughout flight
– Flex the ankles, knees, and hips upon landing.
■ FOR DISTANCE
– Direct force down and back with slight trunk tip forward
– Takeoff with the heels before knee extension.
– Knees flexed during flight, and thighs brought parallel with ground.
– Swing lower legs forward for a two-foot landing
– Flex ankles and knees when heels touch the ground
 Hopping
EARLY HOPPING ADVANCED

• Only slight arm movement • Arm opposite swing leg comes

• Arm held out to side forward with that leg.
• High inactive swing leg. • Range of swing is larger
• Support leg pulled up from the • Takeoff leg is extending
floor. • Swing leg pumps up and down
• Minimal leg extension at takeoff • Support leg fully extend at takeoff
• Few hops can be achieved • Swing leg leads
• Swing leg is seen fully behind
support leg
 Galloping, Sliding and Skipping
■ Galloping, sliding and skipping all involve
fundamental movements of stepping, hopping, or
leaping.
■ Galloping and sliding are asymmetric gaits
■ Both consist of a step on one foot, then a leap-step
on the other foot.
■ The difference between galloping and sliding is the
direction of movement; Forward and Sideways.
 Galloping, Sliding and Skipping
EARLY PATTERNS
• Arrhythmic and stiff
• Arms are rarely involved in
body projection.
• Arms are mostly held stiffly in
high guard position or side for
balance.
• Stride or step length is short.
• Minimal trunk rotation.
• Landing is flat footed.
ADVANCED
• Arms are not needed for balance
• In skipping, arms swing
rhythmically in opposition to legs.
• The child can use the arms for
another purpose during galloping
an sliding.
• Heel-forefoot or forefoot landing
• Knees “give” and remain flexed on
landing, to support body weight.