DEVELOPMENT OF BALLISTIC

SKILLS

FRANCIS FRIMPONG
 Objectives

■ Identify developmental changes in throwing,

kicking, punting, and striking movements

■ Compare and contrast the characteristics of early

performers across the various ballistic skills.

■ Note similar characteristics of proficient

performance of ballistic skills.
Ballistic Skills

■ An individual applies force to an object in

order to project it.

■ Common ballistic skills include throwing,

kicking, and striking.
Overarm Throwing
■ Throwing takes many forms:
– Two-hand underhand
– One-hand underhand
– Sidearm
– Two-hand overarm
– One-hand overarm
■ The most common in sport games is the
one-hand overarm throw.
 Gauging Throwing Skill
■ Product measures (outcome)
– Accuracy
– Distance
– Ball velocity
■ Process measures (movement pattern)
– Developmental sequences
■ Each has advantages and disadvantages, but
product measures often reflect skill as well as
body growth and maturation during childhood
and adolescence.
A Beginning Thrower
A Beginning Thrower (continued)
A Beginning Thrower (continued)
Characteristics of Early Overarm
Throwing

■ Early overarm throwing consists mostly of

arm action.
■ The elbow points up.
■ The throw is executed by elbow extension
alone.
A Proficient Thrower
Proficient Overarm Throwing for
Force

■ Preparatory windup used (weight shifts and

trunk rotates back, arm swings).
■ Use of opposite leg, long step, and
differentiated trunk rotation.
■ Upper arm and forearm lag back.
■ Movements are sequential to transfer
momentum.
Developmental Changes in
Overarm Throwing

Trunk action
1. None or forward–backward movement
2. Block rotation
3. Differentiated rotation
Developmental Changes in
Overarm Throwing (continued)

Backswing
1. None
2. Shoulder flexion
3. Upward backswing
4. Downward, circular backswing
Developmental Changes in
Overarm Throwing (continued)

Foot action
1. No step
2. Homolateral step
3. Short contralateral step
4. Long contralateral step
Developmental Changes in
Overarm Throwing (continued)
Upper arm action
1. Oblique
2. Aligned but independent
3. Lag
Developmental Changes in
Overarm Throwing (continued)
Forearm action
1. No lag
2. Lag
3. Delayed lag
Progression in Childhood

■ Throwers do not achieve the same step for each

body component at the same time.

■ Some combinations of steps are observed more

frequently than others are observed.

■ Not everyone reaches the highest step in each

component; girls and women often remain in
intermediate steps.
Throwing in Adulthood
■ Older adults demonstrate moderately
advanced steps.
■ Gender differences are observed.
■ Ball velocities are moderate.
■ Musculoskeletal constraints might influence
the movement patterns used.
Throwing in Adulthood (continued)

■ Change is usually slight rather than rapid, is

more often an increase in variability, and is
usually a decline.

■ Change is typically in the control of

movements (slowed speed or decreased range
of motion) rather than coordination of
movements.
Throwing for Accuracy

■ Throwers may use lower developmental steps

for accuracy throws than for forceful throws.

■ If the distance for the accuracy throw still

requires force, little change would be noted
for that individual.
Kicking

■ The ball is struck; this can be difficult for

children if the ball is moving.

■ Children must have perceptual abilities and

eye–foot coordination to make contact.
 Characteristics of Early Kicking

■ No step with nonkicking

leg.

■ Kicking leg pushes

forward.
Intermediate Kicker
Proficient Kicking
■ Preparatory windup used (trunk
rotated back, kicking leg cocked, knee
bent).
■ Trunk rotates forward.
■ Movement is sequential, with thigh
rotating forward then lower leg
extending.
■ Arms move in opposition to the legs.
Proficient Kicker
Developmental Changes in Kicking

■ Movement pattern changes are not well

documented.

■ Developmental steps have not been validated.

Punting

■ The ball is dropped from the hands.

■ Punting is more difficult for children than

kicking.
Characteristics of Early Punting

■ Ball is tossed up rather than

dropped.

■ Punter often contacts ball

with toes rather than with
instep.
Proficient Punting

■ Arms are extended to drop ball before final

stride is taken.
■ Arms then drop to sides and move into
opposition with legs.
■ Punter leaps on to supporting leg, swings
punting leg vigorously up to contact.
■ Punting leg is kept straight, with toes pointed.
An Advanced Punter
Developmental Changes in
Punting: Arms
Ball-release phase
1. Upward toss
2. Late drop from chest height
3. Late drop from waist height
4. Early drop from chest height

Ball-contact phase
5. Arms drop
6. Arms abduct
7. Arm opposition
Developmental Changes in Punting:
Legs

Ball-contact phase
1. No short step, ankle flexed
2. Long step, ankle extended
3. Leap and hop
Sidearm Striking
■ Various body parts can be used.
■ Implements can be used.
■ Mechanical principles are similar for all
striking tasks.
– Focus here is on one-hand sidearm and one-
hand overarm with an implement.
– Principles can be applied to other striking
tasks.
Characteristics of Early Sidearm Striking

■ Chopping motion
(elbow extension)

■ Little leg and trunk

movement
Intermediate Striker
Proficient Sidearm Striking

■ Sideways preparatory
stance and a long step
■ Differentiated trunk
rotation
■ Horizontal swing through
large range of motion, with
arm extended before
contact
■ Sequential movements
Developmental Changes in
Sidearm Striking

■ Sequences for foot and trunk in the overarm

throw can be used.
■ Trend to use trunk rotation (none, then blocked,
then differentiated).
■ Plane of the swing progresses from vertical to
horizontal.
Developmental Changes in
Sidearm Striking

■ Grip changes from power grip to “shake-

hands” grip.

■ Elbows are away from the body and extended

before contact.
Overarm Striking

■ Without an implement (volleyball serve)

■ With an implement (tennis serve)

Characteristics of Early Overarm
Striking

■ Limited trunk rotation

■ Swing with a collapsed elbow
■ Little or no lagging with the swing forward
■ Looks much like early throwing
Proficient Overarm Striking
■ Lower and upper trunk are rotated more than
90 degrees.
■ Elbow is held between 90 and 119 degrees at
start of forward movement.
■ Racket lags behind arm in forward swing.
■ Movement is sequential.
Developmental Changes in
Overarm Striking
■ Trunk, upper and lower arm, and leg sequences
similar to overarm throwing

■ Preparatory trunk action

– No trunk
– Minimal trunk rotation
– Total trunk rotation
Developmental Changes in Overarm
Striking (continued)
Elbow action in ball-contact phase
1. Very small or very large angle
2. Intermediate angle (2–89 degrees)
3. Ideal angle (90–119 degrees)

Spinal and pelvic range of motion

4. Less than 45 degrees
5. Rotation of 45 to 89 degrees
6. Rotation of 90 degrees or more
Developmental Changes in Overarm
Striking

Racket action
1. No racket lag
2. Racket lag
3. Delayed racket lag
 Older Adult Striking
Jagacinski, Greenberg, & Liao (1997)
– Studied iron shot (did not require maximal force).
– Older golfers reach peak force earlier in swing.
– Older golfers may need to exert more force for the
same shot compared with younger golfers.
– A few older golfers were less accurate than
younger golfers but most were just as accurate.
Older Adult Striking (continued)

Haywood & Williams (1995)

– Studied tennis “first” serve.
– Studied older servers at moderate levels.
– Two former teaching professionals were
categorized at the highest levels (they
maintained the coordination of movements).
Ballistic Skills: Summary
■ Proficient performance demonstrates the
mechanical principles.
■ Developmental trends are toward proficient
mechanical performance.
■ A forward step and more trunk rotation are
used.
■ Trunk rotation is differentiated.
Ballistic Skills: Summary (continued)

■ Projecting limb shows more and more lag.

■ Probably not all individuals reach highest

steps.

■ Older adults appear to maintain the

coordination of ballistic movements fairly
well.
 Assessment of Ballistic Skills
■ Developmental sequences can be used as checklists.
■ Individuals are considered to be in a developmental
step if the majority of a set number of executions
(typically five) are in that category.
■ Observation should be conducted from the appropriate
direction.
– Side views show forward step, trunk action, and lagging.
– Rear views show arm angles.