Physics-II(PH-102) Credit- 3 (2-1-0)

Statistical Mechanics: Statistical distributions: Maxwell-Boltzmann, Molecular Energies in an ideal gas, Bose-Einstein and Fermi-Dirac statistics,
Rayleigh- Jeans formula, Planck's law of radiation, specific heats of solids.

Solid State Physics : Crystalline and amorphous solids, point defect, dislocations, Bonding in solids: ionic, covalent, Van der Waals and metallic
bond, band theory of solids, classification of solid on band theory Superconductivity, Meissner effect, Type I and type II superconductors,
 bound electron pairs, isotope effect.

Nuclear & Particle Physics: Nuclear structure, stable nuclei, binding energy, liquid drop model, Meson theory of nuclear forces, radioactive decay:
alpha, beta and gamma decay, Fundamental interactions, Leptons, Hadrons, Gluons, Elementary Particle quantum numbers, conservation laws.
Quark

Essential Reading:

1. Arthur Beiser, Concepts of Modern Physics, McGraw Hill Education , 6th Editio

Supplementary Reading:

1. M. A. Wahab, Solid State Physics, Narosa Publishing House , 3rd edition

2. Donald Neamen, Semiconductor Physics and Devices, McGraw Hill Education , 3rd edition
 Physics-II(PH-102)
Detail Chapters to be covered for Physics-II
                                                    (Book  to be followed-A.Beiser, S.Mahajan, S.Rai Choudhury)
In chapter 9, we will be covering sections 9.1 to 9.6, 9.8.
In Chapter 10, we will be covering sections 10.1 to 10.10 (only classical Hall Effect part from 10.11 )

In Chapter 11, we will be covering sections 11.1 to 11.5, 11.7.

In Chapter 12, we will be covering sections 12.1 to 12.6.

In Chapter 13, we will be covering sections 13.1 to 13.5.

 Statistical mechanics
The dynamical state or microstate of the system at any instant is defined by the 6N
Cartesian and velocity coordinates, which span the dynamical space of the system.
The path/curve of the system in dynamical space is called a trajectory

Consider a system of an extremely large number N of microscopic constituents (often

referred to as particles), for example on the order of Avogadro's number 10 23.

A micro-state corresponds to a precise and complete specification of each and every

one of these particles.

From the point of view of classical mechanics of point-like particles, a micro-state will
be described by the generalized positions qi(t) and their velocities
.
.
q i  1      3N
The evolution of a system can be represented by a trajectory in the multidimensional (configuration,
B(t
phase) space of micro-parameters.
A(t=0)
Each point in this space represents a microstate.
During its evolution, the system will only pass through accessible microstates without violating the
conservation laws.

A macrostate of a thermodynamic system is described by a few thermodynamic variables, such as P, V, T

and E, S etc. for a gas system. These quantities are the measure of collective behaviors of atoms in the gas.

A microstate, however, specifies the system with the physical quantities of the constituent particles. 
For a single particle, we cannot speak of P, V, and T. But we can specify its physical state of motion. 

In classical mechanics, the state of a single particle is specified by its position and momentum at a
moment, (r; p). For N particles in a box, a microstate is specified by a set of values of their positions and
momenta

Since each of these vectors has three components, the whole lot represents a 6N
-dimensional space. This is the phase space of the N-particle system.
 A Simple Example of microstates:

Suppose we have a 6×6 checkerboard. Each square of the board represents a localised spin-1/2 particle
with two possible spin orientations, one spin-up marked by X and the other spin-down marked by O.
A particular configuration of this up and down spins corresponds a microstate.
Many different patterns are possible, such as those shown below.

Define a macrostate here to be simply specified by the number,

n" of X’s (and hence (N − n") of O’s, here with N = 36).

Later we will make an assumption that every configuration is equally likely, i.e., each
one has the same probability 1/Ω where Ω=236
Thus, this is just the common combinatorial problem of splitting a group of
N identical objects into two smaller groups n↑ and (N − n↑) without caring
about the ordering in each group. The number of ways is

the numbers N!/[n!(N − n)!] are called the binomial coefficients

 Basic statistical hypotheses

Classical thermodynamics describes macroscopic systems (i.e..ones which contain very large numbers of
atoms) in terms of a few thermodynamic variables P, V, T,E etc.

 But such systems are really made of atoms, and a microscopic description would be in terms of the
underlining states of all of the atoms. Hence, we need a bridge between the microstate and macrostate
description. 
This bridge is provided by statistical mechanics.
As the atoms interact the microstates change very rapidly (maybe 10 35 times/second).
We can in principle take two approaches in averaging:

Time-average. Suppose X is some observed macroscopic quantity (i.e., a state variable) e.g., internal
energy E, we could take a time average over some (long)
time :

at equilibrium
Average by distribution (ensemble). It’s clear that many different microstates all correspond to the
same macrostate. 
Suppose we take a movie film of the progression in time of the system. Eventually we expect to see all
possible microstate configurations consistent with given macrostate (described, e.g., by E, V,N). 

Suppose the value of the variable Xin microstate i is X i , and let the probability that the ith microstate
appears in the movie of the system be pi. Then, we can average over microstates to get the observed
value <Xi> in the macrostate

This idea of taking an ensemble average is clearly much easier in practice than the much more
complicated time-averaging, provided we know the probabilities pi.
 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution

Scottish Physicist James Clerk Maxwell-kinetic Theory of gas in 1859

Velocities among the gas

Ludwig Boltzmann Realized Maxwell’s finding in 1871

Expressed Kinetic Energy of gas molecules

N number of molecules, collide with each other and against the wall of container.
 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution

Scottish Physicist James Clerk Maxwell-kinetic Theory of gas in 1859

Velocities among the gas

Ludwig Boltzmann Realized Maxwell’s finding in 1871

Expressed Kinetic Energy of gas molecules

N number of molecules, collide with each other and against the wall of container.
A molecule moving through a gas collides with other molecules in a random fashion.

This behavior is referred as a random-walk process.

The mean free path increases as the number of molecules per unit volume decreases.

The molecules move with constant speed along straight lines between collisions.

The average distance between collisions is called the mean free path.

Maxwell-Boltzmann’s Four assumption

1.Diameter of the atoms in the molecules are much smaller than their distance.

2.The collision between them conserve energy.

3.The molecules move in a straight line after collision.

4. The position & velocities of the molecules are random initially.

Maxwell Computed- A molecule chosen would have particular velocity

Raising the temperature- The most probable velocity shifts to the right.

The set of curves are Maxwell distribution

It provides the information of large number of molecules.

The multiplicity function: Number of ways N objects to be arranged in n containers

Let’s consider the 12 letter “a b c d e f g h i j k l” to be arranged in 3 containers

c
3 letters in Container 1
4 letters in container 2
5 letters in container 3 c h
c h k

For 1st slot there are 12 possibilities

For 2nd slot there are 11 possibilities
For 3rd slot there are 10 possibilities

---------------------------------------------
Etc
There are 12 possible arrangments
12!
Divide the number of arrangements with each given container  27,720
3!4!5!

So, there are 27,720 ways of partitioning 12 letters in 3 containers

Simillarly, the arrangements of N particle in n groups containing N1,N2,-----,Ni,Nn objects
N!
N1! N 2 !    N i !   N n !

The multiplicity
N! N!
Q  N1 , N 2    N i ,   N n   
N1! N 2 !    N i !   N n ! n

N !
i 1
i

(classically many particle in one state, but quantum mechanically not)

In general arrangements of Ni particles into gi sub-containers is g iNi

Therefore, the total multiplicity function is  

 N! 
Q N1 , N 2 ,  , N i  , N n   n  g iNi
 
 
 i 1
N i !

 Constant-Constraint 1

n
  Ni  N
i 1 Constant-Constraint 2

n
  i 1
Ei N i  E

 
 N! 
Q  N1 , N 2 ,   , N i  , N n    n  g iN i
 N i !
 
 i 1 

Taking logarithmic of above equation (The multiplicity function)
n n
ln Q  N1 , N 2 ,  , N i  , N n   ln N !  N i ln g i   ln N i !
i 1 i

Applying Stirling Approximation ln x!  x ln x  x

n n n
ln Q  N1 , N 2 ,  , N i  , N n   N ln N  N   N i ln g i   N i ln N i   N i
i 1 i i

To maximize, let’s use constraints

  
ln Q    0
N j N j N j
 Substituting for lnQ, constraint 1 and 2

  n n n
   n    n 
 N ln N  N   N i ln g i   N i ln N i   N i      Ni      N i Ei   0
N j  i 1 i i  N j  i  N j  i 

Taking derivatives with N is constant and i=j are non - zero

 1 
ln g j  1. ln N j  N j .   1    E j  0
 Nj 
 
ln g j  ln N j     E j  0
Nj
ln    E j
gj
Nj
Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution function n E j    exp  E j 
gj
1 
Where  and 
k BT k BT
 Ej 
Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution function n E   exp E
j
F
 =f(Ej) For T=0, μ=EF
 k BT 
The probability of finding the phase point for a given system in any one region of phase space
is identical with that for any other region of equal extension or volume. This is known as the
equal a priori probability.
The A Priori Probability (G) –The disatribution which is based upon the properties of each cell. ai
gi 
Thermodynamic Probability(Ω)- The distribution which is the number of different accessible sequence is A
which the events may be distributed among the cell without changing the number in each cell
N Balls in k cells
A  a1  a 2  a3         a k

g i  g1  g 2  g 3       g k  1

g i  g i  g i2
The a priori probability that ni balls simultaneously in the ith cell is (g i)ni

G  ( g1 )  g 2       gk 
n1 n2 nk

N!
N
Cn1 
n! N  n1 !

N  n1  N  n1 !
Cn2 
n3 ! N  n1  n2 
Thermodynamic Probability

N!  N  n1 !  N  n1  n2 ......  nk ! N!
       
n1! N  n1 ! n2 ! N  n1  n2 ! nk ! N  n1  n2  ......n k ! n1!n2 !......nk !

Total Probability of distribution

N! k
 gi  i
n

P  G   g1   g 2  ......... g k   N!
n1 n2 nk

n1!n2 !......nk ! i ni !