ELECTRICAL

ASPECT’S

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Electricity Simple Electrical Circuits

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Charge

Charge
exists???

We just invent the name to represent the source of the

physical force that can be observed. The assumption is that the
more charge something has, the more force will be exerted.

Charge is measured in units of Coulombs

Charge comes in two styles

Charge is conserved

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4
Voltage
Voltage tries to make the current flow.

Voltage is measured in volts.

Voltage can be direct or alternating.

A direct voltage maintains the same polarity at all times.

In an alternating voltage, the polarity reverses direction periodically.

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Electric current : motion of charges

Electric current is a flow of electric charge .

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 Have you ever
experienced an

electric shock ?

 The shock probably

happened because your
hand or some other part
of your body contacted
a source of electrical
current and your body
provided a path for the
electrical current to go
to the ground, so that
you received a shock.

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Polarity and Speed

_ _
+ +

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 9

Magnetic field:
Magnetic fields are produced by moving electric
charges and the intrinsic magnetic moments of elementary
particles associated with a fundamental quantum property,
their spin.
 In special relativity, electric and magnetic fields are two
interrelated aspects of a single object, called
the electromagnetic field tensor.
 the split of this tensor into electric and magnetic fields
depends on the velocity of the observer.
In quantum physics, the electromagnetic field is
quantized and electromagnetic interactions result from the
exchange of photons.
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Electromagnet

Passing an electric current through a wire generates a

magnetic field around it.

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Solenoid

• A solenoid is a three-dimensional coil wound into a tightly

packed helix. In physics, the term solenoid refers to a loop
of wire, often wrapped around a metallic core, which
produces a magnetic field when an electric current is passed
through it.

• In engineering, the term solenoid may also refer to a

variety of transducer devices that convert energy into linear
motion.

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• A solenoid is a device which converts energy into linear
motion. This energy may come from an electromagnetic field,
a pneumatic (air-powered) chamber or a hydraulic (fluid-
filled) cylinder.

• Solenoids are commonly found in electric bell assemblies,

automotive starter systems, industrial air hammers and many
other devices which rely on a sudden burst of power to move
a specific part.

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Toroid :

  A toroid is a doughnut-shaped object, such as an O-ring.

 It is a ring form of a solenoid.

 Its annular shape is generated by revolving a plane geometrical

figure about an axis external to that figure which is parallel to the
plane of the figure and does not intersect the figure.

  When a rectangle is rotated around an axis parallel to one of its

edges, then a hollow cylinder (resembling a piece of straight pipe) is
produced.
Transformer

A transformer is
a device that
transfers electrical
energy from one
circuit to another
through inductively
coupled conductors—
the transformer's
coils.

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There are many types of

transformers, based on
construction there are-
core and shell type
Battery
 A Battery is a combination of one or more electrochemical
cells, used to convert stored chemical energy into electrical
energy.

Battery symbol

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18
Battery Nomenclature

Duracell batteries 9v battery 6v dry cell

Two cells A real battery Another battery

More precisely

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Types of Battery
Battery Rechargeable/ non- Applications
rechargeable

Dry-cell Non-rechargeable Wristwatches, calculators

Lead-acid Rechargeable Large backup power supplies for telephone and computer centers, grid
energy storage, and off-grid household electric power systems. Lead-
acid batteries are used in emergency lighting in case of power failure.

Ni-cd Rechargeable Cordless and wireless telephones, emergency lightning.

Ni-mh Rechargeable electric vehicle batteries includes all electric plug-in vehicles.

Li-ion Rechargeable Laptops, moderate to high-end digital cameras and camcorders

Li-po Rechargeable Radio controlled aircraft, radio controlled. Hyundai Motor Company
plans to use this battery type in its hybrid electric vehicles.

Fuel-cell Rechargeable power sources in remote locations, such as spacecraft, remote weather
stations, large parks, rural locations, and in certain military applications.

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 The Electrochemical Cell
e
consumer

salt bridge

oxidation reduction
at zinc at copper
anode ZnSO4 CuSO 4 cathode

Half Cell I Half Cell II

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C battery:
The C battery (or R14 battery) is a standard size
of battery typically used in medium-drain applications such as
toys and musical instruments.
A C battery measures 50 mm in length and 26.2 mm in
diameter. 
The voltage and capacity of a C size battery depends on
the battery chemistry and discharge conditions.
Alkaline C batteries can hold up to 8,000 mAh,
rechargeable NiMH C batteries can hold up to 6,000 mAh,
and zinc-carbon C batteries usually hold up to 3,800
mAh.

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 23

C battery:
Primary (Disposable) Batteries
• Zinc carbon (flashlights, toys)
• Heavy duty zinc chloride (radios, recorders)
• Alkaline (all of the above)
• Lithium (photoflash)
• Silver, mercury oxide (hearing aid, watches)
• Zinc air

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Standard Zinc Carbon Batteries

• Chemistry
Zinc (-), manganese dioxide (+)
Zinc, ammonium chloride aqueous electrolyte
• Features
+ Inexpensive, widely available
▫ Inefficient at high current drain
▫ Poor discharge curve (sloping)
▫ Poor performance at low temperatures

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Standard Alkaline Batteries

• Chemistry
Zinc (-), manganese dioxide (+)
Potassium hydroxide aqueous electrolyte
• Features
+ 50-100% more energy than carbon zinc
+ Low self-discharge (10 year shelf life)
± Good for low current (< 400mA), long-life use
▫ Poor discharge curve

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27
Lithium Manganese Dioxide

• Chemistry
Lithium (-), manganese dioxide (+)
Alkali metal salt in organic solvent electrolyte
• Features
+ High energy density
+ Long shelf life (20 years at 70°C)
+ Capable of high rate discharge
▫ Expensive

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Secondary (Rechargeable) Batteries
• Nickel cadmium
• Nickel metal hydride
• Alkaline
• Lithium ion
• Lithium ion polymer
• Lead acid

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Nickel Cadmium Batteries

• Chemistry
Cadmium (-), nickel hydroxide (+)
Potassium hydroxide aqueous electrolyte
• Features
+ Rugged, long life, economical
+ Good high discharge rate (for power tools)
▫ Relatively low energy density
▫ Toxic

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31
Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries

• Chemistry
LaNi5, TiMn2, ZrMn2 (-), nickel hydroxide (+)
Potassium hydroxide aqueous electrolyte
• Features
+ Higher energy density (40%) than NiCd
+ Nontoxic
▫ Reduced life, discharge rate (0.2-0.5C)
▫ More expensive (20%) than NiCd

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33
Lead Acid Batteries

• Chemistry
Lead
Sulfuric acid electrolyte
• Features
+ Least expensive
+ Durable
▫ Low energy density
▫ Toxic

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35
Lithium Ion Batteries
• Chemistry
Graphite (-), cobalt or manganese (+)
Non aqueous electrolyte
• Features
+ 40% more capacity than NiCd
+ Flat discharge (like NiCd)
+ Self-discharge 50% less than NiCd
▫ Expensive

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37
Lithium Ion Polymer Batteries
• Chemistry
Graphite (-), cobalt or manganese (+)
Non aqueous electrolyte
• Features
+ Slim geometry, flexible shape, light weight
+ Potentially lower cost (but currently expensive)
▫ Lower energy density, fewer cycles than Li-ion

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Battery Capacity
Type Capacity (mAh) Density (Wh/kg)

Alkaline AA 2850 124

Rechargeable 1600 80

NiCd AA 750 41

NiMH AA 1100 51

Lithium ion 1200 100

Lead acid 2000 30

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Voltage regulation
 voltage regulation is the ability of a system to provide
near constant voltage over a wide range of load
conditions.
 A voltage regulator with only three terminals appears to
be a very simple device, but it in fact a very complex
integrated circuit.
 Voltage regulator converts a varying input voltage into a
constant ‘regulated’ output voltage.
 Voltage regulator are available in a variety of outputs
like 5V, 6V, 9V, 12V, 15V.

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 The LM78XX
series of voltage
regulators are
designed for
positive input.

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Switch
 In electronics, a switch is an electrical component that can
break an electric circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it
from one conductor to another. The most familiar form of
switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with
one or more sets of electrical contacts.

Push button switches

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Electronics specification and Expansion of abbreviation symbol
abbreviation
SPST Single pole, single through

SPDT Single pole, Double through

SPCO Single pole changeover

DPST Double pole, single through

DPDT Double pole, Double through

DPCO Double pole Changeover

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Relays
 A relay is a simple electromechanical switch made up of an
electromagnet and a set of contacts. Relays are found hidden
in all sorts of devices. In fact, some of the first computers ever
built used relays to implement Boolean gates.

 A relay is an electrically operated switch.

 Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates a magnetic

field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts.

 The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch

positions and most have double throw (changeover) switch
contacts

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 The picture shows a
working relay with its coil
and switch contacts.
 You can see a lever on the
left being attracted by
magnetism when the coil
is switched on.
 This lever moves the
switch contacts.
 There is one set of
contacts (SPDT) in the
foreground and another
behind them, making the
Relay showing coil and
relay DPDT. switch contacts

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The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and
NO:
COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of
the switch.
NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay
coil is off.
NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil
is on

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 MOTOR DRIVERS

DC Motor Drivers
• These are current amplifying circuits.
• A low current control signal is converted into a
proportionally higher current signal that can drive the
motor

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L293D (Motor Driver Ic)

• The L293D is a quadruple half H-bridge bidirectional motor

driver IC that can drive current of up to 600mA with voltage
range of 4.5 to 36 volts. It is suitable to drive small DC-
Geared motors, bipolar stepper motor etc.
• Applications-
DC and stepper motor drives
Position and velocity servomechanisms

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DC Motor Direction Control

Power
VCC Transistor
Switches

S1 S2
M
1 2
S3 S4

• H – Bridge Circuit Diagram

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H – Bridge Working
S1 S2 S3 S4 Current Effect
Direction

1 0 0 1 1 to 2 Motor spins
forward

0 1 1 0 2 to 1 Motor spins
backward

1 1 0 0 - Braking Occurs

0 0 0 0 - -

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Electronic Direction Control
• H – Bridge Circuit Diagram
VCC

DC MOTOR
Q1 Q3
NOT GATE NOT GATE
2

2
2 1
A
-

+
Q2 Q4
L R
1

1
GND

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Motors
 The motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical
energy.

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DC Motor

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A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC)
electricity.

DC motors were used to run machinery, often eliminating the

need for a local steam engine or internal combustion engine.

DC motors can operate directly from rechargeable batteries,

providing the motive power for the first electric vehicles.

Today DC motors are still found in applications as small as toys

and disk drives, or in large sizes to operate steel rolling mills and
paper machines.

Modern DC motors are nearly always operated in conjunction with

power electronic devices.

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Stepper Motor
A stepper motor is a brushless, synchronous electric motor
that can divide a full rotation into a large number of steps.

A stepper motor (or step motor) is a brushless DC electric

motor that divides a full rotation into a number of equal steps.
The motor's position can then be commanded to move and
hold at one of these steps without any feedback sensor
(an open-loop controller), as long as the motor is carefully
sized to the application.
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57
Servo Motors
The motors that are used in automatic
control systems are called servomotors.

When the objective of the system is to

control the position of an object then the
system is called Servomechanism.

The servomotors are used to convert an

electric signal (control voltage) applied to
them into an angular displacement of the
shaft.

They can either operate in a continuous

duty or step duty depending on
construction.
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Requirement of good servo motors

The servomotor which are designed to use in feedback

control system must have following requirements:

 Linear relationship between electrical control signal and the

rotor speed, over a wide range

 Inertia of the rotor should be as small as possible.

 Its response should be very fast. For quickly changing error

signals, it must react with good response.

 It should be quickly reversible

 It should have linear torque-speed characteristics

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 The output torque at any speed should be roughly
proportional to the applied control signal.

 Its operation should be stable without any oscillations.

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Classification

Servo Motor

DC servo motor AC servo motor

Armature
Field controlled
controlled

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RC servo

• RC servos are electro-mechanical devices that respond to a

control signal, which instructs them to move their output
shaft to a certain position.

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Servo Specifications

Torque
 The torque rating specifies how much force the servo can
exert.

 It is typically expressed in units of ounce-inches (oz-in) or

kilogram-centimeters (kg-cm).

 The higher the number, the more force the servo can exert.

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Speed

 The speed of a servo is measured in the number of seconds it

takes to move a certain amount of rotation, usually 60 degrees.

 The smaller the number, the faster the servo is. A servo that is
rated 0.15 seconds is able to rotate 60 degrees in 0.15
seconds.

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Size and Weight

 The size and weight of a servo are important considerations

when used in a small airplanes or other RC devices where
there is not much room, or weight is an issue.

 Typically, smaller servos will have lower torque ratings.

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 Bearing Type

 Standard servos have bushings supporting the main shaft,

heavy duty servos typically have one or two ball bearings
supporting the main shaft.

Motor Type

 The standard motor used in an RC servo is a three pole ferrite

motor.

 Five pole coreless motors are used in some high speed

servos, and heavy duty coreless motors are using in some
high end heavy duty RC servos.

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 A RC (Radio control) servo motor consists of several main
parts:
• the motor and gearbox
• a position sensor
• an error amplifier

The radio control receiver system (or other controller)

generates a pulse of varying length approximately every 20
milliseconds. The pulse is normally between 1 and 2
milliseconds long. The length of the pulse is used by the
servo to determine the position it should rotate to.

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Block Diagram

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Pulse width to voltage converter

 The control pulse is feed to a pulse width to voltage

converter.

 This circuit charges a capacitor at a constant rate while the

pulse is high.

 When the pulse goes low the charge on the capacitor is fed
to the output via a suitable buffer amplifier.

 This essentially produces a voltage related to the length of

the applied pulse.

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 The circuit is tuned to produce a useful voltage over a 1ms to 2ms
period.

 The output voltage is buffered and so does not decay significantly

between control pulses so the length of time between pulses is
not critical.

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Position Sensor
 The current rotational position of the servo motor output
shaft is read by a sensor.

 This is normally a potentiometer (variable resistor) which

produces a voltage that is related to the absolute angle of
the output shaft.

 The position sensor then feeds its current value into the
Error Amplifier which compares the current position with the
commanded position from the pulse width to voltage
converter.

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Error Amplifier
 The error amplifier is an operational amplifier with negative
feedback.

 It will always try to minimize the difference between the

inverting (negative) and non-inverting (positive) inputs by
driving its output is the correct direction.

 The output of the error amplifier is either a negative or

positive voltage representing the difference between its
inputs.

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 The greater the difference the greater the voltage.

 The error amplifier output is used to drive the motor; If it is

positive the motor will turn in one direction, if negative the
other.

 This allows the error amplifier to reduce the difference between

its inputs (thus closing the negative feedback loop) and so
make the servo go to the commanded position.

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RC servos
• RC servos are composed of an electric motor mechanically
linked to a potentiometer.

• Pulse-width modulation (PWM) signals sent to the servo are

translated into position commands by electronics inside the
servo.

• When the servo is commanded to rotate, the motor is

powered until the potentiometer reaches the value
corresponding to the commanded position.

• The servo is controlled by three wires: ground, power and

control.

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• The servo will move based on the pulses sent over the control
wire, which set the angle of the actuator arm.

• The servo expects a pulse every 20 ms in order to gain correct

information about the angle.

• The width of the servo pulse dictates the range of the servo's
angular motion

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• Powering RC Servos
Most servos require a power supply between 4.8V and 6.0V. The
higher the voltage, the faster the servo will move and the more
torque it will have.

bracket
Servo horn

Servo motor

Servo brackets
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• Advantages of servo motors
 High torque to inertia ratio
 High intermittent torque
 High speeds
 Work well for velocity control
 Available in all sizes

• Disadvantages of servo motors

 More expensive
 Cannot work open loop - feedback is required
 Require tuning of control loop parameters

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 Pulse width modulation

• Pulse width Modulation or PWM is one of the powerful

techniques used in control systems today.

• They are employed in wide range of control application

which includes: speed control, power control, measurement
and communication.

• It’s a technique for controlling power to inertial electrical

devices, made practical by modern electronic power
switches.

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PWM of an ac motor
Duty Cycle
• The duty cycle is the fraction of time that a system is in an
"active" state.
• Duty cycle is the proportion of time during which a
component, device, or system is operated

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• Duty cycle

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