UNIT 4

WELL AND CAISSON FOUNDATION

INTRODUCTION(Well foundation )
• Well foundation have their origin in India.
• Well foundations have been used in India for hundreds of
years for providing deep foundations below the water level
for monuments, bridges and aqueducts.
• Taj Mahal at Agra (India) has got well foundation.
• Well foundations can be constructed on the dry bed or after
making a sand island.
• At locations where the depth of water is greater than 5 m to
6 m and the velocity of water is high, wells can be fabricated
on the river bank and then floated to the final position and
grounded.
 Contd..
• Great care is to be exercised while grounding a well to
ensure that its position is correct.
• Once the well has touched the bed, sand bags are
deposited around it to prevent scour.
• The well may sink into the river bed by 50 to 60 cm
under its own weight.
• Further sinking operation is similar to the sinking of
wells on dry bed. The well is sunk into the ground to
the desired level by excavating through the dredge
holes.
 DIFFERENT SHAPES OF WELLS
• (1) The most commonly used shape is circular as it
has high structural strength and is convenient in
sinking. The chances of tilling are also minimum in
this shape.
• The shape is quite suitable for piers of the single-line
railway bridges and the double-lane road bridges.
• However, when the piers are excessively long, the
circular shape becomes uneconomical. The
maximum diameter of circular wells is generally
limited to 9 m.
 Contd..
• (2) Double-D wells are generally used for the piers
and abutments of bridges which are too long to be
accommodated on a circular well of 9 m diameter.
• The wells of this shape can also be sunk easily.
However, considerable bending moments are caused
in the steining due to the difference in pressure
between the outside and the inside of the well.
• Further, the square corners at the partition wall offer
greater resistance to sinking.
 Contd..
• Double-octagonal wells are better than the
double-D wells in many respects.
• The square corners are eliminated and bending
stresses are considerably reduced.
• However, they offer greater resistance than
double-D wells against sinking on account of
increased surface area.
• Moreover, to each other and the construction is
more difficult.
 Contd..
• (4) Twin-circular wells are two independent wells placed
very close having a common well cap.
• The wells are sunk simultaneously. These wells are suitable
where the length of the pier is considerable, which cannot
be accommodated on a double-D or double-octagonal well.
• Twin circular wells are advantageous when the depth of
sinking is small and the bearing capacity of the soil is high.
• The disadvantage of twin circular wells is that there is a
possibility of the relative settlement of the two wells even if
a heavy R.C.C top cap is provided unless the wells are
founded on an incompressible soil.
 Contd..
• 5) Rectangular wells are generally used for
bridge foundation having depths up to 7-8 m.
For large foundations, double-rectangular wells
are used.
• For piers and abutments of very large size,
rectangular wells with multiple dredge holes
are used.
• Bending stresses in the steining are very high in
rectangular wells.
Contd..
 Unit 1 assignment

• 4. What are the assumptions of earth pressure theory and derive an

expression for Rankines Earth pressure in cohesive soils.
• 8.Explain various types of retaining walls with neat sketch.
• 3. Determine the lateral earth pressure at rest per unit length of wall as
shown in fig. Also determine the resultant earth pressure. Take K0=1-Sinφ',
γw=10kN/m3.
• 10.Explain various requirements of stability analysis of Gravity retaining
walls.
• 11. A cantilever retaining wall of 7mts height retains sand. The properties
of sand are e=0.5,φ=300 and G=2.7m.Using Rankines theory Determine the
active earth pressure at the base when the backfill is (i) dry (ii) saturated
(iii)submerged and also the resultant active force in each case.
 Unit 2 assignment
• 2 What are different types of shallow foundations? Explain with the help of neat
sketches.
• 6. A strip footing of 2m width is founded at a depth of 4m below the ground surface.
Determine the net ultimate bearing capacity, using a) Terzaghi’s equation (Nc=5.7,
Nγ=1.0, Nq=0.0) b) Skempton’s equation c) IS Code (Nc=5.14). The soil is clay (φ=00,
C-10kN/m2).The unit weight of soil is 20kN/m2.
• 8.Describe how the plate load test is conducted with a neat sketch?
• 9.What are different types of settlements that occur in a foundation?

• 11.(a) Determine the ultimate bearing capacity of a square footing, resting on the
surface of saturated clay of unconfined compressive strength of 98kN/m2.
(b) A rectangular footing (3 m X 2 m) exerts a pressure of 100 kN/m2 on a cohesive soil
(Es =5x104 and μ=0.50).Determine the immediate settlement at the centre,
assuming a) Footing is flexible b) Footing is rigid.
• A strong cutting edge is provided to facilitate sinking.
• The tapered portion of the well above the cutting edge is known as
well curb.
• The walls of the well are known as steining.
• Steining is made of brick masonry, stone masonry, plain or
reinforced concrete.
• As the steining later becomes an integral part of the structure, it
should be properly designed for the imposed loads.
• Further, it should be heavy enough to overcome frictional resistance
during sinking.
• After the well has been sunk to the final position, the bottom plug is
formed by concreting.
• The bottom plug serves as the base of the well. The well is filled
with sand partly or completely.
• At the top of the well, a top plug is formed by concreting.
• A R.C.C. well cap is provided at the top to transmit the load of the
superstructure (pier or abutment) to the well
FORCES ACTING ON THE WELL FOUNDATION

• The following forces should be considered in the design of a well

foundation.
• (1) Dead loads. The dead loads carried by the well include the
weight of the superstructure and the self weight
• (2) Live loads. The design live loads for railway bridges are taken
according to Indian Railway Bridges Rules. For road bridges, the
live loads as specified by the Indian Road Congress Standard
Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges Sect. II should
be used.
• (3) Impact loads. Impact effect due to live load is considered only
in the design of pier cap and the bridge scat on the abutment. For
all other members of the well, the effect of impact is ignored.
 Contd..
• (4) Wind loads. Wind loads on the live load, superstructure and the
part of the substructure located above the water level are calculated
according to the provisions of IS 875. The wind load acts on the
exposed area in elevation and thus it acts laterally on the bridge.
• (5) Water pressure. Water pressure due to water current acts on the
part of substructure which lies between the water level and the
maximum scour level. On piers parallel to the direction of the water,
the intensity of water pressure is given by
• P = KV²where p = intensity of pressure (kN/m²),
• K = a constant, depending upon the shape of the well 0.788 for square
ended pier to a minimum of 0.237 for piers with cut and ease water),
• V = velocity of current and zero at the deepest scour level. The(m/sec).
 Contd..
• If the current makes an angle 8 with the axis
of the pier, the pressure along the axis of the
pier and transverse to it are given by
• Pa= pressure along axis p cos² (20° + θ)
• Pt =transverse pressure = p sin² (20° ± θ)
 Contd..
• Longitudinal Forces.
Longitudinal forces occur due to tractive and braking
forces. These forces depend upon the type of
vehicles and bearings. These forces are transmitted
to substructure mainly through fixed bearings and
through friction in movable bearings. According to
IRC code, a longitudinal force of μW is taken on the
free bearing and the balance on the fixed bearing,
where W is the total reaction and μ is the coefficient
of friction.
 Contd..
• (7) Centrifugal Force.
A centrifugal force is transmitted through bearings if the
bridge is curved in plan.
• (8) Buoyant Forces.
Buoyancy reduces the effective weight of the well. In
masonry or concrete steining, 15% buoyancy is considered
to account for the porousness. When the well is founded
on coarse sand, full buoyancy equal to the weight of an
equivalent volume of displaced water should be
considered. For semi-pervious foundations, it is suitably
reduced.
 Contd..
• (9) Earth Pressure.
The earth pressure is calculated according to
Rankine's theory or Coulomb's theory. For the
stability of foundations below the scour level,
the passive earth pressure of the soil is
considered. To account for the effect of live
load placed behind the abutment, an
equivalent height of surcharge is considered if
no approach slab is provided.
 Contd..
• (10) Temperature Stresses.
Longitudinal forces are induced due to temperature changes.
The movements due to temperature changes are partially
restrained in girder bridges because of friction at the
moveable end.
(11) Seismic forces.
For the wells constructed in the seismic zone, seismic forces
should be considered. The forces act on all components of
the structure. The force is usually specified as αW, where W is
the weight of the component andα is the seismic coefficient.
The value of a depends upon the seismic zone (IS : 1893). Its
value is generally taken between 0.01 and 0.08. The seismic
force acts through the centre of gravity of the component
 GRIP LENGTH
• The well should be sunk below the maximum scour level to
sufficient depth such that the resistance from the sides is able to
resist the lateral forces acting on the well.
• The depth of the bottom of the well below the maximum scour
level is known as grip length.
• The depth of foundation should be chosen considering the grip
length and the bearing capacity of the soil.
• The maximum and minimum base pressures under worst loading
conditions should be within the permissible values.
• The depth of scour in a stream can be ascertained through actual
soundings at or near the site proposed for the bridge during or
immediately after a flood.
 Contd..
• The maximum scour would be greater than the measured
scour because the design discharge is greater than the flood
discharge for which the soundings have been made.
• Moreover, there would be an increase in the velocity of
water due to the obstruction of flow caused by construction
of the bridge.
• An extra allowance should also be made in the measured
scour due to the proximity of piers.
• In case actual soundings cannot be made, the normal depth
of scour in alluvial soils may be calculated by Lacey's
formula.
Contd..
Contd..
Components of Well foundation
 Design criteria
• DESIGN OF INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS OF THE WELL
The overall design of the well has been discussed in the preceding
sections. The individual components are designed as explained
below.
• (1) Cutting Edge.
The cutting edge should have a sharp angle for cutting through the
soil.
It should be strong enough so that it does not bend when penetrating
through a soil containing boulders.
A sharp vertical edge having an angle of 30° with the vertical or
having a slope of one horizontal to two vertical is generally used.
However, if the sharp edges are likely to be damaged, a cutting edge
with a stub nose is used.
Contd..
 Contd..
• (2) Well curb.
• Fig. below shows the curb of a well. Curbs are
generally made of reinforced concrete.
• During sinking operation, the curb cuts
through the soil.
• The figure shows the forces acting on the curb
when the well has penetrated to a
considerable depth below the scour level.
 Contd..
• (3) Well Steining.
• The thickness of the steining should be
adequate for the stresses developed during
sinking and after installation.
• The thickness of the steining may be obtained
from the following equation
 Contd..
• (4) Bottom Plug.
• The bottom plug should be strong enough to transmit the load the soil below.
• bottom plug is given the shape of an electric bulb to produce an arch action, to
reduce hoop tension in the curb and to provide larger base area.
• The bottom plug is constructed in (1 : 2:4) cement concrete laid by means of a
tremie or a skin box.
• About 10% extra cement is added because some cement is washed away on
account of water.
• The water in the well must be still and at its normal level. Bottom plugging
should always be done in one continuous operation.
• While founding the well on rock, it should be properly anchored by taking it 25
cm to 30 cm deep into the rock bed. Adequate dowel bars should be provided.
 Contd..
• (5) Well Cap.
• The bottom of the well cap is generally kept at the low water level.
• It is designed as a slab resting on the well.
• The well cap may be extended as cantilevers to accommodate
piers of slightly larger If the width of the pier is greater than the
size of the dredge hole, it is assumed that the weight of a cone of
size than that of the well.
• concrete having an apex angle of 60° is carried by the slab and the
remaining load is transmitted to the steining.
• The well cap should have a minimum reinforcement of about 80
kg/m³.
 Contd.
• 6) Top Plug.
• The function of the top plug is to transmit the load of
the pier to the well steining.
• If a well cap is provided, there is no need of a top plug.
However, it is generally provided as an extra safety
precaution.
• Offsets are provided at the top of the steining to
provide bearing to the plug.
• Cement concrete (1 : 2:4) is used for the construction
of the top plug.
 Contd..
• 7) Sand filling.
• The main purpose of sand filling is to provide
stability to the well by increasing its weight and
to reduce the tensile stresses caused at the base
by bending moment.
• However, sand cannot be depended upon for
transmitting the weight of the pier to the bottom
plug and, therefore, it does not contribute
towards the structural strength of the well.
 Sinking of wells
(1) Laying the Well Curb.
It the river bed is dry, the cutting edge over which the well
curb is to be built is placed at the required position after
excavating the river bed to about 15 cm.
When the depth of water is up to 5 m, a sand island is made
before placing the curb.
The size of island should be large enough to accommodate the
well with adequate working space all around (Fig. 27.20).
In the case of depth of water more than 5 m, it is generally
more economical to build the curb on dry ground at the river
bank and float it to the site.
Contd..
 Contd..
• (2) Well Steining.
After sinking the well curb, the steining is raised by about
1.5 m at a time and its sinking done after allowing at
least 24 hours for setting.
The steining must not be built in plumb at any
intermediate stage when the well has tilted to one side.
Once the well has acquired a grip of about 6 m in ground,
the steining can be raised by about 3 m at a time.
The height of steining built at any stage should be such
that the well does not lose stability.
 Contd..
3) sinking process
Sinking process is begun after having cast the curb and the first stage of steining and
allowing enough time for curing.
The well is sunk by excavating material from inside the curb manually or
mechanically.
When the depth of water inside the well is up to 1 m, dredging can be done manually.
However, beyond this depth of water, excavation is done with the help of 'jhams' (a
type of spade).
The 'jham' is tied to rope moving over a pulley. It is pulled by the men. Every time, a
diver dives and pushes the jham into the soil and comes up. The jham is then pulled
out.
In an improved version, the jharm has been replaced by an automatic grab operated
by diesel (or steam) winches.
Straight chisels are used for breaking hard material so that is can be taken out by
grab. Under-cutting chisels are used to loosen the material which lies under the
steining. Explosives are used for sinking through rock.
Contd..
Contd..
 Contd..
• As the well sinks, the friction on the sides increases. To
accelerate the process of sinking, additional loading, known
as kentledge, is applied on the well.
• Kentledge is generally in the form of sand bags placed on a
suitable platform erected on its top such that it does not
interfere with the excavation.
• Sometimes, even kentledge is not sufficient to sink the well.
• In such cases, the frictional resistance developed on its outer
periphery is reduced by forcing jets of water on the outer
face. However, this method is effective only in the case of
wells sunk in sandy strata.
MEASURES FOR RECTIFICATION OF TILTS AND
SHIFTS
• The well should be sunk straight and at the correct position.
However, it is not an easy task to achieve this objective.
Sometimes, the well tilts on one side or it shifts away from the
desired position. The following precautions must be taken to
avoid tilts and shifts
• (1) The outer surface of the well curb and steining should be
regular and smooth.
• (2)The diameter of the curb should be kept about 4 to 8 cm lager
than outer diameter of steining, and the well should be
symmetrically placed.
• (3) The cutting edge should be of uniform thickness and
sharpness.
• (4) Dredging should be done uniformly on all sides in a circular
well and in both pockets of a twin well.
 Contd..
• Tilts and shifts must be carefully checked and properly
recorded. The correct measurement of the tilt is an
important field observation required during well sinking.
• It is not possible to specify the permissible limits of tilts
and shifts. Each case should be examined individually.
• IS: 3955-1967 recommends that tilt should generally be
limited to 1 in 60. The shift should be restricted to one
percent of the depth sunk. In case they exceed the above
limits, the following measures are taken for their
rectification
 Contd..
(1) Regulation of Grabbing.
• To rectify the tilt, the higher side is grabbed more by
regulating the dredging. However, this method is effective in
initial stages of sinking.
• In case of tilted wells, dredging does not work satisfactorily.
• In such a case, a hole is made in the steining on the higher H
side and the rope of the grab is pulled through the hook.
• Thus dredging with hooking is done. Alternatively, the well
may be dewatered, if possible, and open excavation may be
carried out on the higher side.
Contd..
 Contd..
• (2) Eccentric loading.
• To provide greater sinking effort on the higher
side, eccentric loading is applied by adjusting the
kentledge.
• A suitable platform is constructed on the higher
side for this purpose.
• As the sinking progresses, heavier kentledge
with greater eccentricity would be required to
rectify the tilt.
Contd..
 Contd..
• (3) Water Jetting.
• If the water jets are applied on the outer face of the well
on the higher side, the side friction is reduced and the
tilt is rectified.
• (4) Excavation under cutting edge.
• A tilted well in a hard clayey stratum does not straighten
due to unbroken hard stratum on the higher side.
• If dewatering of the well is possible, open excavation is
done under the cutting edge. In case dewatering is not
possible, divers can be sent to loosen the strata
Contd..
 Contd..
• (5) Inserting wooden Sleeper under the cutting edge.
• Sometimes wooden sleepers are inserted temporarily below
the cutting edge on the lower side to avoid further tilt .
• Alternatively, a hook is inserted below the cutting edge on
the lower side and pulled with a wire rope and kept strained.
• (6) Pulling the well.
• In early stages of sinking, pulling the well towards the higher
side, by placing one or more steel ropes around the well with
vertical sleepers packed in-between to distribute the
pressure over larger areas of well steining, is quite effective.
Contd..
 Contd..
• (7) Strutting the well.
• The well is strutted on its tilted side with
suitable logs of wood to prevent further tilt.
• The well steining is provided with sleepers to
distribute the load from the strut.
• The other ends of the logs rest against a firm
and non-yielding base having driven piles
Contd..
 Contd..
• (8) Pushing the wells by jacks.
• The tilt can be rectified by pushing the well
with a suitable arrangement through
mechanical or hydraulic jacks.
• Fig. 27.27 shows a tilted well being pushed by
a jack resting against the vertically-sunk well.
Contd..
Caisson foundation
 Introduction
A caisson is a type of foundation of the shape of
a hollow prismatic box, which is built above
the ground level and then sunk to the required
depth as a single unit.
It is a watertight chamber used for laying
foundations under water, as in rivers, lakes,
harbors, etc. The caissons are of three types:
(i) Open caissons, (ii) Pneumatic caissons, and
(iii) Floating caissons.
 Contd..
• Open caissons
• These are hollow chambers, open both at the top
and the bottom.
• The bottom of the caisson has a cutting edge.
The caisson is sunk into place by removing the
soil from the inside of the shaft (chamber) until
the bearing stratum is reached.
• Well foundations are special type of open
caissons used in India,
 Contd..
• Pneumatic caissons are closed at the top, but
open at the bottom.
• A pneumatic caisson has a working chamber
at its bottom in which compressed air is
maintained at the required pressure to
prevent entry of water into the chamber.
• Thus the excavation is done in dry.
 Contd..
• Floating caissons are open at the top but closed
at the bottom.
• These caissons are constructed on land and
then transported to the site, and floated to the
place where these are to be finally installed.
• These are sunk at hat place by filling them with
sand, ballast, water or concrete to a leveled
bearing surface.
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
PNEUMATIC CAISSONS
• Pneumatic caissons have the following advantages and disadvantages, as
compared with open caissons.
• Advantages
• (1) As there is an access to the bottom of the caisson, obstructions can be
easily removed.
• (2) The soil can be inspected and the soil samples can be taken, if required.
• (3) Soil bearing capacity can be determined by conducting in-situ tests in
the working chamber.
• (4) Excavation and pouring of concrete is done in the dry.
• (5) As the position of the ground water table remains unchanged, there is
no flow of soil into the excavated area.
• (6) There is no settlement of the adjoining structures as the water table is
not lowered.
 Contd..
• Disadvantages
• (1) Pneumatic caissons are highly expensive. Pneumatic caissons
should be used only when open caissons are not feasible.
• (2) The penetration depth below water table is limited to 30 to 40 m.
• (3) There is a lot of inconvenience caused to the workmen while
working under high pressure. The workers may develop caisson
disease.
• (4) In pneumatic caissons, a large amount of manual work is required
which increases the cost.
• (5) Extreme care is required for the proper working of the system and
to maintain the required air pressure. Any slackness may lead to an
accident.
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
FLOATING CAISSONS
• Floating caissons have the following advantages and
disadvantages as compared with open calssons.
• Advantages.
• (1) The installation of the floating caisson is quick and
convenient.
• (2) As the floating caissons are prefabricated or precast, the
quality of construction is good.
• (3) Floating caissons are less expensive than open caissons.
• (4) Floating caissons can be transported by floating at a
relatively low cost.
 Contd..
• Disadvantages.
• (1) The load-carrying capacity of a floating
caisson is much lower than that of an
equivalent open caisson.
• (2) The foundation bed has to be leveled
before installation.
• (3) The base of the floating caisson is to be
protected against scour action.
 CONSTRUCTION OF OPEN CAISSONS
• The sinking of an open caisson is generally done by
penetrating it in the dry or from a dewatered
construction area or from an artificial island.
• An artificial island of sand is made for the purpose
of raising the ground surface above the water level.
• Thus a dry area is obtained for sinking the caisson.
• The size of the sand island should be sufficient to
provide working area around the caisson.
• For the construction of a sand island, a wooven willow
mattress is first sunk to the river bottom to provide
protection against scour.
• A timber staging is then constructed around the
periphery of the intended island.
• Sheet piles are driven to enclose the island area. The
mattress is cut along the inside face of the shell formed
by sheet piles and the inside mattress is removed.
• The shell is then filled with sand up to the required
level.
• In case it is not possible to sink the caisson in
dry, it is constructed in slipways or barges and
towed to its final position by floating.
• False bottoms are provided for this purpose.
Guide piles are generally required for sinking
the first few lifts of caisson.
• Sinking is done through open water and then
penetrating it into the soil.
• The caisson is sunk by its own weight when the soil is excavated from
the dredging well.
• As sinking progresses, additional lifts of caisson steining are installed.
• When a hard material is encountered, under-water blasting may be
necessary.
• The excavation is done by dredging with grab buckets. The soil near
the cutting edge is removed by hand if it does not flow into the
excavation.
• The sinking operation is, of course, stopped during the period the
concrete for the lift is cast and cured.
• To facilitate sinking, the exterior surface is applied with a film of
grease. Alternatively, water jets are used.
• When the caisson reaches the final depth, its bottom is
plugged by a concrete seal.
• The concreting for the seal is done by tremie.
• After the concrete has matured, the water in the caisson is
pumped out. The top of the concrete seal is cleaned and
more concrete is placed over the seal.
• The caisson should be kept in the vertical position during the
entire process of sinking.
• However, it is extremely difficult to sink the caisson perfectly
straight and true to its position. Corrective measure are
adopted when it becomes inclined
CONSTRUCTION OF PNEUMATIC CAISSONS

• Like open caissons, pneumatic caissons may

be constructed at the site or floated and
lowered from barges:
• Artificial sand islands may also be used. The
cutting edge of the caisson is carefully
positioned.
• Compressed air is introduced in the working
chamber to expel water.
• After the working chamber has been dewatered,
workmen descend through the air lock into the
working chamber.
• The material is excavated by hand tools in dry. As the
excavation progresses, the caisson gradually sinks.
• Concreting of the caisson is then done.
• The air pressure in the caisson is increased to
equalize the increase in the head of water as the
caisson goes down.
• The excavated material is removed by buckets
through the air shaft.
• In granular soils, the excavated material can
be removed by the blowout method through
the blow-out pipe When the valve in the blow
pipe in opened, the granular material is blown
out by high air pressure inside the working
chamber.
• After the caisson has attained its design depth,
the working chamber is filled with concrete.
• Precautions must be taken to ensure full
contact between the concrete fill and the
underside of the roof of the working chamber.
• The fresh concrete is first lowered through the
air shaft and a slab about 0.6 m thick is formed
on the bottom and well packed under the
cutting edge.
• The air pressure in the chamber is kept
constant till the concrete has hardened.
• A stiff mix of concrete is then packed into the
working chamber up to the roof level.
• Any space left between the roof and the
concrete surface is filled with cement grout.
• There should not be any empty space left in
the chamber, as it would lead to settlement
when the caisson is subjected to
superimposed load.
• After concreting of the working chamber is
completed, the shaft tubes are dismantled.
The shaft itself is filled up with a lean concrete
various components of pneumatic caisson

• A working chamber is provided at its bottom to keep

the caisson free of water and mud by use of
compressed air.
• The design of a pneumatic caisson is similar to that of
an open caisson in many respects.
• The ultimate load carrying capacity, the design of
walls, concrete seal and cutting edge are similar to
that of open caissons.
• However, the following differences should be clearly
noted.
• (1) Working chamber.
The working chamber is made of mild steel. It is about 3 m
high. It consists of a strong roof at its top. The chamber is
absolutely air tight. The air in the chamber is kept at a
specified pressure to prevent entry of water and soil into
it.
The walls of the chamber should be thick and leak proof. To
keep the frictional resistance low, the outside surfaces of
the walls are made smooth. A cutting edge is provided at
the bottom to facilitate the penetration of the caisson.
• The air pressure must be sufficient to balance the full
hydrostatic pressure due to water outside.
• However, there is a maximum limit to air pressure.
Working under a pressure of greater than 400 kN/m² is
beyond the endurance limit of human beings.
• Therefore, the maximum depth of water through which
a pneumatic caisson can be sunk successfully is about
40 m.
• Working under a pressure greater than 400 kN/m² may
cause a special type of sickness, called caisson sickness.
• (2) Air Shaft.
• An air shaft is a vertical passage which connects the working chamber
with an air lock at the top.
• It provides an access to the working chamber for workmen. It is also used
for the transport of the excavated materials to the ground surface.
• In larger caissons, two separate air shafts are provided, one for passage of
workmen and one for transport of the materials. The shafts are made of
steel tubes. The joints of the tubes are provided with rubber gaskets to
make them leak proof.
• Each shaft is provided with its own air lock at its top. As the caisson sinks,
the air shaft is extended to keep the air lock always above water level.
• During this period, the working chamber is closed by a gate plate at the
lower end of the shaft.
• (3) Air Lock.
An air lock is a steel chamber provided at the upper end of the air shaft above
water level. The purpose of providing an air lock is to permit the workmen
and materials to go in or to come out of the caisson without releasing the air
pressure in the caisson.
The steel chamber of the air lock is provided with two airtight doors, one of
which opens to the shaft and the other opens to the outside atmosphere.
When a man enters the airlock through the outside door, the pressure in the
chamber is kept equal to the atmospheric pressure.
The outside door is closed and the pressure in the chamber is gradually raised
till it becomes equal to that in the air shaft and the working chamber.
The door to the shaft is then opened and the man descends to the working
chamber by a ladder provided inside the air shaft. The procedure is reversed
when a man comes out from the caisson.
• (4) Miscellaneous equipment.
Miscellaneous equipment such as motors,
compressors, and pressure pumps are usually
located on the shore.
Pressure to the working chamber is applied
through compressed air pipe.
In order to cope with an emergency, at least one
stand-by unit consisting of all equipment must be
provided.
 FLOATING CAISSONS
• Floating caissons are large, hollow boxes with top open but
bottom closed. These are floated to the place where these are
to be installed.
• The caissons are then sunk by filling them with ballast, such as
sand, dry concrete, gravel. Unlike the open and pneumatic
caissons, a floating caisson does not penetrate the soil.
• It simply rests on a leveled surface. The load carrying capacity
depends solely on the base resistance, as there is no side
friction.
• After the caissons has been sunk to its final position, it is
completely filled with sand or gravel.
• A concrete cap is cast on its top to receive structural loads. To
prevent scour underneath, rip rap is placed around its base.
• Floating caissons are usually constructed of
reinforced cement concrete or steel.
• The plan of the caisson may be circular,
square, rectangular, or elliptical.
• If the caisson is to be floated in rough waters,
it is designed as a ship and suitable internal
strutting is provided.
 STABILITY OF FLOATING CAISSONS
• The caisson must be stable during flotation.
According to Archimedes' principle, when a
body is immersed in water, it is buoyed up by
a force equal to weight of the water displaced.
• For equilibrium, W-U=0
• where W= weight of the caisson, U= buoyant
force.
• The weight W acts through the centre of gravity (G)
of the body.
• The buoyant force U acts through the centre of
gravity of the displaced water, known as the centre
of buoyancy (B)
• If the caisson is tilted through a small angle θ, the
centre of gravity (G) remains at the same location
with respect to the caisson itself, but the centre of
buoyancy B changes its position as the position of
displaced volume is changed.
• Some portion of the caisson which was not submerged
during the vertical position becomes submerged in the
inclined position.
• The point of through B and the centre line of the caisson is
known as metacentre (M).
• The caisson would be stable if the metacentre M is above G,
i.e., the metacentric height MG is positive. The distance BM
between points B and M is given by
• The metacentric height can be determined analytically (see
any text on Fluid Mechanics) as given below.
• BM=I/V
• where I = second moment of area of the plan of
the caisson at water surface,
• V = volume of water displaced.
• The metacentric height is computed as
MG= BM±BG
The plus sign in Eq. is used when G is below B.
If the caisson is unstable, it should be either
redesigned or ballast should be used to make it
stable.
The free board when floating should be at least 1 m.