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OISD-STD-170
First Edition
JULY 1997

FOR RESTRICTED
CIRCULATION ONLY

NO.

INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE,
REPAIRS AND REHABILITATION
OF
FOUNDATIONS AND STRUCTURES

PREPARED BY

FUNCTIONAL PANEL ON CIVIL ENGINEERING WORKS

OIL INDUSTRY SAFETY DIRECTORATE

7TH FLOOR, NEW DELHI HOUSE
27, BARAKHAMBA ROAD
NEW DELHI - 110 001.
 NOTE

OISD publications are prepared for use in the oil and gas industry under
the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas. These are the property of
Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas and shall not be reproduced or
copied and loaned or exhibited to others without written consent from
OISD.

Though every effort has been made to assure the accuracy and reliability
of data contained in these documents, OISD hereby expressly disclaims
any liability or responsibility for loss or damage resulting from their use.

These documents are intended only to supplement and not replace the
prevailing statutory requirements.
 FOREWORD

The Oil Industry in India is 100 years old. Because of various

collaboration agreements, a variety of international codes, standards and
practices have been in vogue. Standardisation in design philosophies
and operating and maintenance practices at a national level was hardly
in existence. This, coupled with feed back from some serious accidents
that occurred in the recent past in India and abroad, emphasised the
need for the industry to review the existing state of art in designing,
operating and maintaining oil and gas installations.

With this in view, the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas in 1986
constituted a Safety Council assisted by the Oil Industry Safety
Directorate (OISD) staffed from within the industry in formulating and
implementing a series of self regulatory measures aimed at removing
obsolescence, standardising and upgrading the existing standards to
ensure safe operations. Accordingly, OISD constituted a number of
functional committees of experts nominated from the industry to draw up
standards and guidelines on various subjects.

The present document on "Inspection, Maintenance, Repairs and

Rehabilitation of Foundations and Structures", has been prepared by the
Functional Panel on "Civil Engineering Works". This document is based
on the accumulated knowledge and experience of industry members and
the various national and international codes and practices. This
document is meant to be used as supplement and not as a replacement
for existing codes and practices. It shall be borne in mind that no
standard can be a substitute for the judgement of a responsible qualified
Engineer.

This document will be reviewed periodically for improvements

based on the new experiences and better understanding. Suggestions
from industry members may be addressed to:

The Coordinator
Functional Panel on "Civil Engineering Works”
OIL INDUSTRY SAFETY DIRECTORATE
7TH FLOOR, NEW DELHI HOUSE
27, BARAKHAMBA ROAD
NEW DELHI - 110 001..
 FUNCTIONAL PANEL ON CIVIL ENGINEERING WORKS

LEADER

1. Y.K. RAO, CH MGR (MTLS), HPCL, VISAKH REFINERY -

2. G.K.KHETRAPAL,SR.ENGG.MGR,IOC(MKTG-NR),N.DELHI (*)

MEMBERS

1. A. SENGUPTA, CH.MGR.(PJ),IOC-PIPELINES, HO, NOIDA

2. BABU NINAN, SR.MGR(DESIGN ENGG), CRL, COCHIN

3. S.K. KULKARNI, SR.MGR.(MINOR PROJ), HPCL REF, MUMBAI

4. S. NATH, SR. MGR. (CIVIL), IOC GUJARAT REFINERY, BARODA

5. B. K. GOEL, S.E. CIVIL, ONGCL, JORHAT, ASSAM

6. B.S.M. KRISHNA, MGR(ADV ENGG-CIVIL), BPCL REF, MUMBAI

7. RAKESH MISRI,SR MGR,VIZAG-VIJAYWADA PL,HPCL(MKTG),VIZAG

8. S.E. SUKUMARAN,SR MGR-OPS & ENGG, HPCL(MKTG),CHENAI

9. SURESH MALKANI, MGR.(PROJECTS), EIL, N. DELHI

10. V.D. KHASNIS, MGR.(OIL), IBP CO. LTD., SEWRI, MUMBAI

11. D. BANERJEE, MGR.ENGG, BPCL (MKTG), NOIDA

MEMBER COORDINATOR

12. K.R. SONI, ADDITIONAL DIRECTOR(ENGG), OISD, N. DELHI-

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

In addition to the above, various other experts from the industry contributed in the preparation, review
and finalisation of this document.

(*) Leader upto March, 1996

 CONTENTS

CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Scope

CHAPTER II - TANK PAD FOUNDATIONS & DYKEWALL

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Tank Foundations
2.1 Inspection
2.2 Frequency of Inspection
2.3 Maintenance
2.4 Rehabilitation
3.0 Dyke Walls

CHAPTER III - EQUIPMENT FOUNDATIONS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Inspection
2.1 Frequency of Inspection
2.2 Checklist for Inspection
2.3 Defects
3.0 Maintenance/Repairs
3.1 Dislocation/Corrosion of Anchor Bolts
3.2 Cracks in main body of foundation
3.3 Settlement of foundation block
3.4 Dislocation of Base Plate
4.0 Rehabilitation

CHAPTER IV - MARINE STRUCTURES

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Foundations/Structures used in
Marine Services
2.1 Pile Foundations
2.2 Offshore Structures/Platforms :
2.3 Marine Bridge Piers
3.0 Deterioration in Marine Structures
3.1 Concrete Structures
3.2 Steel Structures
4.0 Protection of Marine Structures
4.1 Controlling Quality of Concrete
Structure
4.2 External Protection of Concrete
Structures
4.3 Protection of Steel Structures
5.0 Inspection of Marine Structures
5.1 Inspection of Concrete Structures
5.2 Inspection of Steel Structures
6.0 Periodicity of Inspection
7.0 Rehabilitation of Marine
Structures
7.1 Concrete Structures
7.2 Steel Structures
CHAPTER V - PIPE RACKS AND TRACKS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Factors Affecting Pipe Racks and
Tracks
3.0 Repairs/Maintenance of Pipe Rack
System
3.1 Concrete Structures
3.2 Steel Structures
3.3 Grass/Vegetation Growth
4.0 Rehabilitation of Pipe Rack After
Fire
5.0 Checklist for Inspection

CHAPTER VI - BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Frequency of Inspection
3.0 Checklist for Inspection
4.0 Inspection of Components of
Building and Structures
4.1 Inspection of Concrete Components
4.2 Inspection of Masonry Components
4.3 Inspection of roof
4.4 Inspection of Steel Structures
4.5 Inspection of Wood Work
4.6 Inspection of Painting on
Walls/Structures
4.7 Inspection of Antistatic Sparkless
Mastic Flooring
5.0 Repairs/Restoration

CHAPTER VII - CONCRETE - GENERAL INSPECTION & REPAIRS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Concrete Deterioration
3.0 Assessing Deterioration in
Concrete Structures
4.0 Repair of Concrete Structures
4.1 General
4.2 Repair Techniques
5.0 Repair/Rehabilitation of Fire-
Damaged Concrete Structures
5.1 Effects of Excessive heat on
concrete
5.2 Repairs techniques

References
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

reference during subsequent

1.0 INTRODUCTION inspections/maintenance.

The civil foundations and structures are All the subsequent modifications to the
vital components in an oil industry structure and foundations shall be duly
installation. It is the general experience marked on the original drawing itself.
that these components do not get the The record of details of the job carried
deserved attention. Since the out shall also be maintained for future
consequences of even a partial failure of reference.
these components could be
catastrophic, it was decided to sum up
the related maintenance and inspection
practices in the form of an OISD
document.

2.0 SCOPE

This Recommended Practice (RP)

intends to provide guidelines to the Oil
Industry personnel with regard to the
maintenance, inspection, repairs and
rehabilitation of various civil structures
and foundations.

For the purpose of this RP, the civil

structures involved in oil industry
installations have been grouped into
the following sections: -

a) Tank pad foundations and dyke

walls
b) Equipment foundations
c) Buildings and structures
d) Pipe racks and tracks
e) Marine structures
f) Concrete - general inspection and
repairs

3.0 It is assumed that the users of this RP

are conversant with the terminology
used and will have basic knowledge
about of causes of deterioration of
various types of foundations and
structures.

4.0 The Committee recommends that all

records, basic design parameters, "as
built" drawings and history of
construction of various components of
foundations and structures should be
kept at one place and under a
controlling authority for ease of
 CHAPTER II

TANK FOUNDATIONS & DYKE WALLS

may damage/ erode tank
foundation.
1.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with the practices 2.2 FREQUENCY OF INSPECTION

recommended for inspection,
maintenance, repairs and rehabilitation a) Routine visual inspection
of tank foundations and dyke walls. should be carried out at
The rehabilitation of the tank foundation least twice a year both pre &
may become necessary in case of post monsoon or after any
excessive settlements, erosion etc. major accidents / natural
which will lead to shell distortion, calamity.
excessive tension in bottom plates and
piping causing to their failures. b) The detailed inspection
should be carried out every
5 years or during the M&I
2.0 TANK FOUNDATIONS shutdown whichever is
earlier. This shall also
2.1 INSPECTION include the settlement
readings along the
A successful inspection / maintenance periphery of tank at already
program for tank foundations depends established points.
upon the factors which include (but are
not limited to) the following: c) During internal inspection of
storage tanks, undulation/
a) Checking of tank settlements. - cracks in the bottom plates
Normally equidistant angle cleats should be examined
are welded to the tank periphery at specifically, from the
the time of construction at a fixed viewpoint of localised
height from tank bottoms. Levels are subsoil settlements.
to be taken with respect to a fixed
datum, which is not affected by tank 2.3 MAINTENANCE
settlement.
Minor rectification work such as filling of
b) Adequacy of drainage system. thin cracks, replacement of eroded
material in the slope, patch work, and
c) Checking of grass growth/shrubs etc storm oily water drainage system shall
on tank pad/apron. be immediately attended to.

d) Erosion of tank pad/apron. A premonsoon checklist must be

followed for each tank as detailed
e) Checking of chemical analysis of below:
concrete for ruling out alkali-
aggregate reaction induced cracks. a) Health of tank Pad : Horizontal
portion and slope of the tank
f) Condition of joint between tank pad should be checked against
bottom & foundation. undulation/erosion of bituminous
layer and for exposure of
g) Maintenance and upkeep of Tank sand/rubble core etc.
farm area including pathways
b) Slope of tank farm area for easy
h) Spillage of any tank contents on flow of rainwater towards the sum to
tank foundation from joints on avoid water logging.
suction/discharge lines of tank which
 c) Grass/bushes/vegetation on the
tank pad and tank farm area to be
removed.
d) No unlined pits are to be allowed
near tank periphery (lining to be
done by concrete).
e) Any deterioration / cracks in
concrete (if the tank rests on ring
wall type foundation).
2.4 REHABILITATION
a) Rehabilitation of the tank pad
foundation may be necessitated due
to excessive settlement.
b) Uniform settlements to the extent
that they do not affect tank piping
connections are not harmful for tank
performances. Differential
settlements may lead to shell
distortion, excessive tension of
bottom plate, and additional
stresses on connected pipe nozzles
and pipeline resulting in failure.
Such failures may also cause
additional hoop stresses in the Ring
Beam causing failure of hoop
reinforcement.
c) The tank foundation rehabilitation
may involve major repair such as
jacking and leveling of the tank,
replacement of annular bottom
plate, construction of new
foundation, strengthening and
regrading of the tank pad wherever
necessary.
d) In situation where entire raising of
tank for rehabilitation of tank
foundation is impracticable,
construction of ring wall by removing
the sketch plate is suggested.
e) The foundation settlement as
apparent from the local
distortion/undulation in the bottom
plates may be rectified by cutting
small openings of say 150 x 150 mm
in the bottom plate and filling sand
with compressed air. Molten
bitumen is then poured in order to
make the layer anticorrosive and an
integral part of the existing
foundation.
f) To avoid/prevent soil erosion a
suitable toe wall with proper
drainage system along the periphery
of tank pad may be considered.
Provision of R.C.C/P.C.C layer on
tank pad apron will reduce the
growth of vegetation and soil
erosion. This also may also be
considered.
3.0. DYKE WALLS
The general considerations for designing
a dyke wall are covered in section 7.0 of
OISD-STD-118.
The repair, maintenance and
rehabilitation of earthen/masonry/
concrete dyke walls is called for in case
of erosion, loss of height and cracks etc.
The reconstruction/repairs of dyke walls
shall be carried out using suitable
materials as per standard practices.
Periodic inspection of dyke wall shall
include:
a) Checking of grass/shrubs on the
dyke wall
b) Erosion and loss of height
c) The methods and materials of
construction and repair adopted
earlier
d) Condition of joints in case of
masonry/concrete dyke wall
e) Condition of drainage system
around and within the dyke wall.
f) Development of cracks on masonry
/RCC walls
g) Erosion of soil around foundation of
dyke wall.
Routine visual inspection should be
carried out pre and post monsoon
as detailed above and rectifications
carried out as necessary. During course
of time, earthen dykes get flattened with
reduction in height resulting in reduction
of the holding capacity. This is to be
checked every 3-4 years and dykes are
to be rebuilt upto their original section.
 CHAPTER III

EQUIPMENT FOUNDATIONS
f) Any unusual or abnormal settlement
1.0 INTRODUCTION as revealed by:

This chapter broadly deals with i) A sloping floor.

foundations of pumps, vessels, columns, ii) Cracks in floors and walls.
engines, compressors, transformers, iii) Displacement of some parts with
electrical equipment, EOT crane rails, respect to others.
etc. Equipment foundations are iv) Piping out of position.
specially designed taking into v) Piping under strain (as
consideration the impact and vibration evidenced by spring up or
characteristics of the expected loads disconnection )
and properties of the underneath soil vi) Broken structural bolts, rivets
under dynamic and static conditions. and welds.
Equipment foundations need special
attention since any major defect in these vii) Top levels of saddle / concrete
foundations can lead to catastrophic columns of foundations with
consequences. respect to bench marks.

2.0 INSPECTION g) Exposure and corrosion of

reinforcements.
2.1 Frequency of inspection
h) Staining of concrete.
A general visual inspection of all above
ground parts of foundations should i) Any spillage of product on
be made at least once a year or after foundation.
any major incident / natural calamity.
Detailed inspection should be carried out j) Stagnation of any oil/water/liquid near
whenever deterioration is observed. the foundation.

Cracks appearing in concrete, spalling of Wherever any unusual or abnormal

concrete, pitting of structures, excessive
deflections, crazy formation on concrete
surface indicating carbonation etc.
should be looked into.
2.2 Checklist for Inspection
Following should be checked during
inspection:
observation is noticed, a detailed
inspection using ultrasound x-ray,
magnetic mapping etc. should be
resorted to for undertaking remedial
actions. For rectification work on
concrete, reference be made to details
provided in Section VII.
2.3 DEFECTS

a) Any visible cracks in the foundation. Defects generally encountered in

Equipment Foundations are:
b) Excessive vibration of foundation
block, while equipment is in a) Dislocation/corrosion/ cracks of
operation Anchor bolts
b) Cracks in the main body of
c) Calcination or deterioration of foundation
concrete. c) Damage/Settlement of foundation
blocks
d) Physical damage to foundation. d) Dislocation/Cracking of base plate
due to consolidation/expansion of
subsoil
e) Loosening or corrosion of
Foundation bolts.

3.0 MAINTENANCE/REPAIRS
 The following corrective/remedial
measures are recommended for defects
generally encountered in the equipment
foundations. However, temporary
supporting as necessary should be
provided before undertaking repairs.
3.1 Dislocation/corrosion of Anchor Bolts
Generally holes are left in the form work
to form pockets in concrete for the
Anchor bolts and these holes are filled
with grout after the base plate is placed
and the bolts aligned. Bolt holes shall
be filled with concrete after clearing the
bolts of all paint, oil or loose rust. The
bolts shall be placed and bolt holes
concreted only after the curing of
concrete of main foundation is
completed. In concrete mix, the sand
shall be well graded and optimum
cement content be used to reduce
shrinkage and increase strength. Use of
non-shrinking cement is recommended.
For urgent jobs, suitable Epoxy grout
may be used. The grout shall be mixed /
placed as per manufacturer’s
recommendations.
Whenever anchor bolts are shear off
due to corrosion and vibration problem it
becomes necessary to extend the
anchor bolts. It is preferable to expose
the damage bolt by breaking the
foundation and putting a new bolt by
reconcreting the part of the foundation
after taking precautions to ensure
effective bounding between parent
concrete and fresh concrete. Whenever
this is not possible, bolt may be
extended as required by welding and
providing separate piece of the metal by
the side and welded properly.
3.2 Cracks in main body of foundation
In case of excessive cracking of the
foundation block, the same needs to be
replaced. However, if there are minor
cracks at certain places, the strength of
the concrete needs to be ascertained by
inspection and by non-destructive
testing methods before deciding
corrective action. Depending on situation
pressure grouting may be done. In case
of minor cracks epoxy based liquid may
be grouted in the cracks.
3.3 Settlement of foundation block
In case of settlement of foundation
block, reconstruction of foundation or
reinforcement of the bearing soil may be
required. The method of strengthening
the foundation and its bearing soil will
depend upon the purpose of such
reinforcement, Soil characteristics,
design of foundation and the time
available for re-construction work. The
purpose of foundation reinforcement is
to avert any further progress of
foundation settlement. Chemical or
cement grouting of soil is resorted to for
strengthening of subsoil. In the
strengthening of the soil strata is not
feasible, alternate means of transferring
the load to firm strata shall be suitably
examined and implemented.
3.4 DISLOCATION OF BASE PLATE
The concreting of the foundation shall be
stopped at a little below the level of the
base plate and this gap shall be filled by
mortar after leveling. Concreting under
the base plates shall be done evenly
and without interruption. The base plate
may be levelled by wedges or by screw
jacks, enabling the equipment to be
leveled accurately. To avoid excessive
transmission of vibration to the
foundation through anchor bolts, the
base plate of the equipment may be
fixed on a vibration absorbing medium
such as cork, shalitex, boards etc.
4.0 REHABILITATION
Various techniques and methods as
explained earlier could be used to
undertake rehabilitation of concrete
structures. The repair method adopted
should be specifically suited to arrest
further deterioration which may continue
to ravage the structure even after its
rehabilitation. Some of the methods
commonly used for repairing
damaged/fire-affected concrete
structures are detailed in Chapter VII.
 CHAPTER IV
MARINE STRUCTURES
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Concrete and steel structures are
generally used for partially/completely
submerged marine applications in
harbour, coastal and ocean areas.
Reinforced and prestressed concrete in
typical marine applications should
possess such inherent properties such
as high resistance to corrosive attack of
environment, ability to withstand
compressive loading without undue
deformations, rigidity etc.
2.O FOUNDATIONS/STRUCTURES USED
IN MARINE SERVICES
2.1 PILE FOUNDATIONS
Precast or cast in-situ square and round
RCC / steel piles have been extensively
utilized for bearing piles/ batter piles and
moment resisting vertical structural
columns. The concrete caps if used with
piles must accommodate driving
tolerance in the piling yet assure proper
structural behaviour (e.g. Fixed end or
tension connections to the piles) in
accordance with the design. When
precast concrete caps are used, it is
good practice to make them over-width
and over-length to enable them to be
used under the most adverse
combination of tolerances in pile
location.
2.2 OFFSHORE STRUCTURES/
PLATFORMS:
Extensive use of steel structures has
been made for offshore structures like
platforms. Concrete caisson structures
are also used. Such structures are
designed to resist very high external
pressures during construction and they
must also resist cycles of dynamic
loading due to tidal waves.
The design of such structures not only
takes care of performance under
operating loads and extreme
environmental loads (such as wind and
seismic loads) but also considers a wide
range of accidental loading of low
probability but potentially severe
consequences. These include ship
collision, internal explosion
(deflagration), fire, dropped objects such
as drill collars/casing/ equipment/
components etc. Soil structure
interaction play a dominant role in
dynamic design.
2.3 MARINE BRIDGE PIERS:
1. COFFER DAMS: The conventional
construction method is to drive sheet
piles or install cribs, and then seal the
bottom with a course of underwater
concrete placed by either the tremie or
the grout-intruded method.
2. CAISSONS FOR BRIDGE PIERS:
These are generally constructed in
stages. The lower lift or cutting edge is
constructed in a shallow basin, then
launched and floated out to an outfitting
dock. Here the walls are raised using
panel forms, slip-forms, or precast
panels. Then the caisson is towed to the
site where it is progressively sunk by
raising the top walls and excavating from
within. When it reaches its design
depth, the bottom is usually plugged with
a course of underwater concrete.
3. CYLINDER PILES: Very large
cylinder piles of prestressed concrete
are increasingly being employed to
support major bridges. These are then
capped above water to form the bridge
pier.
4. BELL PIERS: This is a form of box-
caisson construction utilizing precast
concrete of steel shells to form the outer
portion of the pier. These are lowered
into place, fixed, and then filled with
structural tremie concrete.
3.0 DETERIORATION IN MARINE
STRUCTURES
3.1 CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Sea water is regarded as an active
attacking agent for cement & 4.0 PROTECTION OF
reinforcements of concrete structures.
The region attacked most is the portion
of the structures above the mean
tide/level where alternate wetting and
drying occurs. The completely
submerged portions suffer much less
attack.
It is commonly observed that
deterioration of concrete in sea water is
often not characterized by the expansion
found in concrete exposed to sulphate
action, but takes more the form of
erosion or loss of constituents from the
parent mass without exhibiting undue
expansion. The rate of chemical attack
is increased in temporate zones. Mixing
or curing with sea water is not
recommended because of presence of
harmful salts in sea water, which can
subsequently back out and reduce the
resistance of concrete structure to sea
water attack.
3.2 STEEL STRUCTURES
Steel structure/portions fully immersed in
sea water are comparatively less
prone to corrosion than portions which
are within the splash zone (Areas near
mean tide level which undergoes
alternative wetting and drying and are
attacked the most). It thus becomes
essential to have more frequent
inspections in the splash zone.
For Steel structures deterioration is
generally of the following types:
a) Corrosion : This is most severe in
the splash zone. Corrosion can
result in development of pitting/
holes.
b) Dents : This could occur due to
the collision with vessels, accidents,
etc.
c) Bent Bracings: This occurs due to
collision, under design bracings or
sometimes due to corrosion.
d) Cracks in Weld: Occurs mainly due
to fatigue load experienced by
offshore marine structures. It may
also occur due to improper welding
procedure/ material.
MARINE
STRUCTURES
4.1 CONTROLLING QUALITY OF
CONCRETE STRUCTURE
It consists of taking precautions like
selecting concrete-mix components that
will remain inert and resist the seawater
attack, which includes use of low alkali
cement and non-reactive aggregates,
low water/cement ratio, good
consolidation of concrete, adequate
curing before immersion in sea water
etc.
Concrete in sea water or exposed along
the coast shall be minimum M-20 grade
in case of plain concrete and M-30 case
of Reinforced concrete. The use of slag
& pozzolana cement is recommended.
Further special attention is to be directed
towards mix design to obtain the
densest possible concrete. Hence slag,
broken brick, soft limestone, soft
sandstone, or other weak aggregates
are not to be used. Plastering should be
Avoided. No construction joint shall be
provided within 600 mm of splash zone.
The cover in concrete structure is of vital
importance. Reference should be made
to IS-456 (1978) for meeting strength,
durability and cover requirements of
concrete.
4.2 EXTERNAL PROTECTION OF
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
a) Epoxy coatings. Numerous
formulations are available that can
be applied underwater.
b) Bitumastic coatings: Can be applied
hot or cold.
c) Dense polyurethane coatings.
d) Epoxy coating of reinforcing steel:
Where unusually severe conditions
or abrasion are anticipated, such
parts of the work can be protected
by bituminous coatings or hard
stone facings embedded with
bitumen.
4.3 PROTECTION OF STEEL
STRUCTURES

Steel structures can be protected using
epoxy paints, monel Sheathing and
vulcanised rubber sheathing.
5.0 INSPECTION OF MARINE
STRUCTURES
5.1 INSPECTION OF CONCRETE
STRUCTURES
The routine inspection of concrete
structures should include:
a) Checking for marine growth /
organisms
b) Checking for cracks in concrete
due to reinforcement expansion
c) Checking for abrasion by sand etc.
d) Critically checking for chemical
attack in the splash zone
e) Checking for leaching of concrete
(Chemical attack resulting in loss of
lime content in concrete) Since
major part of the concrete structure
in service is not easily accessible
for inspection, sufficient care and
effort must be made during the
construction stage
5.2 INSPECTION OF STEEL
STRUCTURES
The non-destructive methods used in
inspection of offshore steel structures
are visual inspection, ultrasonic
inspection, penetrant examination,
radiography etc.
6.0 PERIODICITY OF INSPECTION
Periodicity of inspection of marine
structures shall be 3 to 5 years keeping
in view the importance of the structure,
consequences of a structural failure,
loads carried by it, location of the
structure etc.
7.0 REHABILITATION OF MARINE
STRUCTURES
7.1 CONCRETE STRUCTURES:
Epoxy injection methods have been
used for repairing & sealing cracks in
underwater locations. A hydrophobic
component in the epoxy permits the
epoxy to bond to wet surfaces; thus as
the epoxy is injected, it displaces the
water ahead of it. Since the leading
edge of the epoxy may be contaminated
by contact with water, it is important to
inject enough of epoxy to ensure that
this contaminated layer is expelled from
the location.
Grout-intruded aggregate and tremie
concrete have been extensively
employed for underwater repair of larger
cavities. Small pockets may be filled
with special cements designed to set
quickly underwater and to resist leaching
of the cement. Special care should be
given to construction joints; No such
joint should be allowed within 60 cm
below low water level or within the upper
and lower planes of wave action.
7.2 STEEL STRUCTURES:
The rehabilitation technique employed
will be decided considering the nature of
deterioration as described below:
a) Epoxy paints are used to control
steel corrosion.
b) Dents may be strengthened by
straightening, welding, etc.
c) holes may be rectified by clamping
or welding
d) Bent bracings may be replaced /
strengthened by straight bracings,
struts, ties etc. and fixed in place by
bolting or welding. Under water
welding can be carried out by
creating suitable water free habitats
for the work to be done.
e) Cracks noticed in the weld joints
should be repaired by first grinding,
them off, ensuring that they are
completely removed and then
rewelding the area. However, it is
essential to determine the cause for
the development of the cracks and
take preventive action regarding its
recurrence.
f) In addition to the protective coating
provided for steel structures,
Cathodic protection may also be
employed, if necessary and
wherever painting is not possible to
control and prevent corrosion in
offshore structures.
 CHAPTER V
PIPE RACKS AND TRACKS
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Pipelines in process units and oil
installations have to traverse long
distances either in a group or singularly at
different elevations. It is necessary that
some structure is made for supporting the
pipelines and taking care of load effects
introduced by service pressure, wind,
earthquake etc. The supporting system is
also expected to restrict deflection of the
piping, to provide for its lateral
movements due to thermal expansion,
and provide clearance from ground to
prevent corrosion. This structure is called
"Pipe Rack". The corridor in which pipes
have to be laid may be termed as "Pipe
Track" or" Pipe Alley".
Pipe Racks may be constructed in:
a) Reinforced Concrete Frame work
b) Structural Steel work
c) Others like Rubble masonry, Brick
masonry etc.
2.0 FACTORS AFFECTING PIPE RACKS
AND TRACKS
2.1 Flow of water around foundations of pipe
racks/sleepers may cause erosion of the
foundation. It is also important to ensure
that slopes are properly maintained to
avoid water clogging or stagnation of oil
spillage in the pipe tracks. Inspection of
pipe tracks from this point of view is
desirable during monsoon.
2.2 It is known that the disintegration of
concrete takes place whenever it comes
in contact with inorganic acids or salts.
Therefore, where presence of such
acids and salts is indicated, an
appropriate surface covering or
treatment to concrete should be
employed.
2.3 Vegetation/soil along the pipe track
should be closely examined for
excessive grass growth and direct
contact with pipeline. Suitable preventive
measures should be taken to prevent
pipeline corrosion in such cases. 2.4
Tilting of pipe sleepers due to dislocation
of pipe shoe of pipe or excessive
expansion/contraction of pipes.
To avoid such situation the length of the
shoe below the pipeline should be
atleast 300mm on either side of the
sleeper depending upon the available
straight length, maximum temperature
variation, Co-efficient of expansion, type
of support, etc.
3.0 REPAIRS/MAINTENANCE OF PIPE
RACK SYSTEM:
3.1 Concrete Structures
Deterioration observed in concrete
structure supporting a pipe rack is
generally due to defect in workmanship
and effect of environment. These
deterioration include
a) Corrosion of reinforcement
b) Spalling of concrete
c) Honeycombing
d) Cracks
The causes leading to these defects and
the rectification techniques are
discussed in Section VII. However, if the
sleeper is badly damaged the sleeper
should be dismantled and recasted by
lifting the pipe to proper level and
lengthening the shoe.
3.2 Steel Structures
It is often required to carry out
repair/replacement of existing bracket/
support without removing the supported
pipes. Before undertaking such
replacement, the job should be surveyed
to determine the nature of temporary
supports needed for the pipes and also
whether scaffolding is required to carry
out the fabrication and installation work.
3.2.1 Painting
The most common form of deterioration
in steel structures is corrosion. Structural
steel pipe rack shall be protected
 against corrosion by applying protective
coats of anticorrosive paints. Different
schemes for surface preparation, finish
paint, film thickness etc. to suit the
environmental conditions may be
worked out. Repainting should be
undertaken at regular intervals as per
site conditions.
3.2.2 Damage to Fireproof coating of
piperacks
5.0 CHECKLIST FOR INSPECTION
If cracks are noticed in the fire-proof
coating of pipe racks then the
following immediate actions should be
undertaken:
laboratory for examining its residual
strength.
c) Sagging of supported piping
system and leakage at joints.
d) Disengagement of piping from its
supports/anchors.
e) After recommissioning the unit, the
pipe support system should be
checked for flow induced
vibrations, if any.
Inspection of pipe racks & tracks should
be carried out on regular basis for the
following:

a) Check whether the crack is a) Vegetation Growth

superficial or to the full depth of fire b) Soil Contact
proof coating. c) Settlement
b) Check for top seal plate. d) Stagnation corrosion
c) It is essential that seal plate is full e) Pittings on structural members
welded and not tack welded. f) Perforations
g) Misalignment of Pipeline(Pipe
3.3 GRASS/VEGETATION GROWTH track)
h) Buckling of columns of pipe rack
External corrosion can occur as a result i) Deflection of beams of pipe rack
of grass/vegetation touching the ground j) Cracks on slabs near columns
level pipelines. due to punching
k) Displacement of anchors/
For controlling growth of grass/ supports
vegetation under pipe tracks following l) Effect of addition/alterations on
measures are suggested pipe rack
m) Vibrations of supporting members
a) Cement concreting along the pipe n) Damage to fire proofing
alley can be considered along with o) Honeycombing of R.C.C.
spraying of chemicals to prevent members
grass growth. A gap of 300mm p) Spalling discolouration of
below pipe line should be provided concrete
for taking up maintenance job for
new piperacks
b) Spreading of 50 mm thick layer of
sand with 50mm thick metal under
and around the pipe trench can
also be considered.

4.0 REHABILITATION OF PIPE RACK

AFTER FIRE

After a fire incident, pipe rack should be

checked for the following:

a) Sagging of the supporting structural

members
b) Even though a pipe rack structure
may appear sturdy after having
been engulfed in fire for a long
time, it is advisable to send a
representative sample of the pipe
rack material to mechanical testing
 CHAPTER VI
BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter covers the general
guidelines for inspection,
maintenance, repairs & rehabilitation
of buildings & structures in industrial
environment. The type & causes of
failures, methods of repairs etc. have
been discussed.
2.0 FREQUENCY OF INSPECTION
a) All new buildings/structures should
be inspected after 5 years and
thereafter at a frequency of once in
2 years or after any major
incident/natural calamity.
b) In case of any addition/alteration to
the old portion, the building shall be
inspected at a frequency of 2 years
or after any major incident/natural
calamity.
3.0 CHECKLIST FOR INSPECTION
3.1 The inspection of the following building
components should be carried out :
A. cracks/settlement of foundation/
wall
B. floor
C. roof
D. structure
E. doors & windows
F. painting of walls, roof, doors,
windows
G. fittings & fixtures in toilet & WC
H. other fittings
I. choking of drains, roof drains,
septic tanks, etc.
J. water leakage/seepage
K. plinth protection around the
building
L. minor electrical fittings/wiring inside
the building
M. steel structure
N. insulation/partition, false flooring
and ceiling
O. Sparkless mastic flooring
P. Construction and expansion joints
3.2 Various components of buildings and
structures should be inspected for the
following:
A. Settlement:
Uneven settlement is serious when
indicated visually by a sloping floor,
cracking in floor and wall and
displacement of some parts with
respect to others. It is not possible to
set any definite limits for settlement.
Stresses set-up by unequal settlement
should be calculated and steps as
necessary should be taken to correct
the problem and arrest further
settlement.
B. Cracking:
Thorough visual inspection shall be
carried out for cracks in masonry
structures. The cracks should be
cleaned thoroughly with scraper/ blade
to ascertain the cause of cracking
such as moisture movement, thermal
variations, creep, elastic deformation,
foundation movement, settlement of
soil, vegetation, movement due to
chemical action etc. Cracks from
different causes have varying
characteristics and call for adoption of
appropriate remedial measures.
C. Disintegration:
Disintegration may be in the form of
spalling, calcinating or attack of salt
water, alkalies or acids. The extent
and depth of disintegration shall be
assessed visually or by detailed
investigation carried out by
chipping/scrapping up to the depth of
disintegration. Suitable remedial
actions should be taken thereafter.
4.0 INSPECTION OF COMPONENTS OF
BUILDING AND STRUCTURES
4.1 Inspection of Concrete Components
- Refer Sec.VII.
4.2 Inspection of Masonry Components-
 Cracks in masonry joints are due to
temperature variation, settlement,
excessive loads or vibrations. For
Masonry, which is weak in tension,
any loading with tensile stress may
cause failure. Vibration may cause
minor cracks, loosening of joints or
complete collapse of the masonry
structure depending on their frequency
and magnitude. Disintegration of the
mortar is another cause of
deterioration.
4.3 INSPECTION OF ROOFS
g) All the bearing connections such
as bolts, bearing plates etc.
must be examined thoroughly.
h) Improve quality control through
inspection to detect material
and welding flaws.
i) Inspection of corrosion of all the
materials
j) Stress concentration in steel
structures must be avoided.
k) Weather protection required for
structural steel in the form of
protective coatings should be
used.

Roof made of R.C.C./A.C. sheet/C.G.I. 4.5 INSPECTION OF WOOD WORK

sheet and roof gutters/rain water pipes
should be inspected at least once a Timber is liable to deterioration
year before monsoon for the following: because of a number of causes
amongst which the most common are
a) Growth of any vegetation effect of termites, lack of surface
b) Blockage of gutter and rain protection by painting /coating and
water pipes usage of unseasoned wood. Wood
c) Damage of water and work should be inspected for the
weather proof treatment following:
d) Damage of expansion joint
e) Damage of slap a) Wood shall be examined for
construction joint due to damage by termite.
vibrations/earthquake b) Painted surface should be
f) Dumping of inspected to determine if the paint
debris/discarded equipment is cracked or blistered.
g) Crack on .C. sheet/A.C. c) Wood shall be checked visually
pipe and consequent for bends, knots, cracks etc.
leakage Wood may also be subjected to
h) Cleanliness of transparent knife test.
sheet
i) Loosening/lack of sheet 4.6 INSPECTION OF PAINTING ON
bolts/washers WALLS/STRUCTURES
j) Cracks on R.C.S.
slaps/shades and The principal causes of damage of
consequent leakage painting are as follows:

4.4 INSPECTION OF STEEL a) Lack of surface preparation

STRUCTURES b) Attack by acids & alkalies
c) Efforescenes on the brick/
Steel structures should be inspected concrete work
for the following: d) Improper selection of paint and
improper application
a) Insufficient temporary bracing e) Temperature (fire effect)
during construction. f) Attack by flue gases
b) Designers and/or construction g) Painting in severe humid
errors conditions
c) particularly inadequate bearing
and load transfer junctions. The new painting shall be inspected
d) Improper welding for surface preparation, primer
e) Excessive flexibility and non- application and each coat of finish
redundant design paint. Proper record shall be
f) Proper implementation of maintained. Already painted surfaces
fabrication procedures shall be inspected for deterioration in
the paint as indicated by a change in
 its colour, peeling, blisters and of repairs are dealt separately in other
chalking. The quality of painting at chapters of this standard.
places which are difficult to reach such
as edges, covers, cervices, bolts and
nuts need to be given special
attention.

4.7 INSPECTION OF ANTISTATIC

SPARKLESS MASTIC FLOORING

The mastic flooring should be visually

checked for cracks, peeling etc.. The
bitumen mastic surface requires
relatively little maintenance though
attention is necessary to obtain
maximum service. The newly laid
surface should be protected from
damage due to careless handling of
construction equipment, spillage of
oils, paints, chemicals, plying of
vehicles etc. Concrete or mortar shall
not be mixed directly on the bitumen
mastic surface.

5.0 REPAIRS/RESTORATION

The Methodology of repairs/

restoration of buildings/structures is
decided based on following factors:

a) Cause of damage
b) type and extent of damage
c) Availability of type of
equipements, tools and materials
at site

In case of cracks/damages in masonry

work, the cracks should be opened up
and repairs be carried out to bring the
wall to its original shape. However,
hairline/superficial cracks in plaster
can be filled using plaster of paris or
other suitable compounds. In case the
masonry wall happens to be a load
bearing wall, care should be taken to
either provide temporary support or
suitably strengthen the structure
before carrying out any major repair
work involving part/full breakage of the
wall. Cracks are also occur mainly
due to difference in co-efficient of
thermal expansion of the material.
Providing expansion joint is, therefore,
essential. Adequate overtap of
chicken mesh should also be provided
during construction.

With regard to repairs of the

concrete/steel structures, techniques
 CHAPTER VII
CONCRETE - GENERAL INSPECTION & REPAIRS
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Concrete is one of the most versatile
materials of civil construction in
modern times. The same ingredients
viz. Cement, Coarse aggregates, fine
aggregates and water in varying
proportions are used for producing
concrete of various grades and
qualities. Considering the varying
conditions under which concrete is
produced at various locations, the
quality of concrete may suffer either
during production or during service
conditions, resulting in distress of the
structure. This chapter deals with the
nature & causes of deterioration in
concrete structures, assessment of
deterioration and repairs/ rehabilitation
of damaged concrete structures.
2.0 CONCRETE DETERIORATION
2.1 Defects & failures in concrete
structures may arise due to the
following:
a) Unexpected overloading, design
errors etc.,
b) Structural deficiency due to
construction methods/defects.
c) Corrosion of reinforcement steel
and spalling of concrete.
d) Damage caused by fire, floods,
earthquakes, vibrations, wind and
impact loads etc.
e) Damage due to chemical attack
f) Damage due to marine
environments
2.2 Defective construction methods form the
largest segment of source of
distress to the concrete structures.
Such defects can be broadly grouped
as follows:
a) Defects due to the selection and
quality of raw materials.
b) Use of defective construction
equipment for producing,
transporting and placing the
concrete.
c) Defective workmanship.
d) Defective shuttering and
scaffolding.
e) Faulty concrete mix ratio
f) Inadequate quality assurance.
2.3 The important raw material contributing
to the success or failure of the
concrete is cement. Though ordinary
Portland cement is used extensively, it
may be necessary to use special
cements, such as, sulphate resistant
Portland Cement, blast furnace slag
cement, low C3A cement etc. for
special environments, soils and
underground water properties. Quality
of cement should be ensured through
appropriate tests.
2.4 The quality of aggregates, particularly
in respect of alkali-aggregate
reaction, needs to be taken into
account. However, cases of
defects/failures attributed to alkali-
aggregate reaction in India are very
rare.
2.5 The use of water containing salt
concentrates for making concrete may
also contribute to deterioration of the
concrete and corrosion of
reinforcements. Excessive use of
water in the concrete mix is the largest
single source of its weakness.
2.6 Proper detailing of reinforcement,
including adequate cover should be
ensured. Improper detailing results in
congestion of reinforcement to such
an extent that concrete just cannot be
placed and compacted properly, even
if concrete is workable.
2.7 Other contributory factors that add to
bad workmanship include segregation,
improper placement, inadequate or
excessive vibration, leakage, of mortar
through shuttering joints, inadequate
concrete cover, inadequate curing etc.
3.0 ASSESSING DETERIORATION IN
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
 Detailed investigation of damaged
concrete is necessary for the
following purposes:
a) To identify the problem.
b) To assess the structure for its
condition and serviceability.
c) To establish the extent of the
damages/ weakness
d) To establish the likely extent of
further deterioration
e) To workout various remedial
measures and To make a final
assessment for serviceability after
repairs.
Apart from visual assessment tapping
the surface and observing the sound
for hollow areas may be one of the
simplest methods of identifying the
weak spots. The suspected areas are
then opened up by chipping the weak
concrete for further visual inspection.
Several methods are available for
testing concrete but the most
commonly used are Core cutter,
Schmidt Hammer, Ultrasonic Pulse
Velocity and Windsor Probe, Chemical
Analysis, etc.
4.0 REPAIR OF CONCRETE
STRUCTURES
4.1 General
Repair of concrete structures is
decided based on factors such as:
a) the cause of damage
b) type, shape and function of the
structure
c) the type and extent of damage
d) the capabilities and facilities
available with the repairing
agency.
e) the availability of repair materials.
The repair of a concrete structure may
vary between just giving a cosmetic
treatment and a total replacement.
Experience shows that many concrete
structures, although they may appear
to have been damaged beyond
repairs, can be reinstated,
economically, after proper
investigation and by using well-
designed equipment, tools and
materials. Several such equipment,
tools and materials are currently in
use.
The repair of concrete structures will
involve treating the deteriorated
material for extended durability,
and/or strengthening of weak
structural members to restore the load
carrying capacity. Several methods
and materials are in use for this
purpose as described below.
4.2 Repair techniques
Repair of concrete structures in
general is carried out in the following
stages:
a) Removal of damaged concrete
b) Pretreatment of surfaces and
reinforcement.
c) Restoring the integrity of individual
sections and reinstatement of
structure as a whole by various
methods.
4.2.1 Removal of defective concrete
Prior to the execution of any repair,
one essential and common
requirement is that all deteriorated or
damaged concrete be removed after
providing adequate support to
affected members. Removal of
defective concrete can be carried out
using tools and equipment, the types
of which depend on the damages and
the situation where these are to be
used. Normally removal of concrete
can be accomplished by hand tools,
or, when that is impractical because
of the extent of damage, it can be
done with a light or medium weight air
hammer fitted with a spadeshaped bit.
Care should be taken not to damage
the unaffected portions. For cracks
and other narrow defects, a saw-
toothed bit will help achieve sharp
edges and a suitable under cut.
4.2.2 Pretreatment of surfaces &
reinforcements
The cleaning of all loose particles,
and removal of oil from the cavity
should be carried out shortly before
the repair. This cleaning can be
achieved by blowing with compressed
air, hosing with water, acid etching,
wire brushing, scarifying, or a
 combination. Brooms or brushes will
also help to remove loose material.
4.2.3 Repair of Cracks in Concrete
Structures
Before repairing cracks in concrete,
the extent, location, width & nature of
cracks must be established. The
following techniques may be used for
filling cracks:
A. Bonding with Epoxies; Hairline
cracks may be sealed with epoxy
compounds; usually pressure
injection is resorted to in sealing
the cracks.
B. Routing and sealing; This
involves enlarging the crack along
its exposed face and sealing it
with crack fillers.
C. Stitching; This can establish
restoration of the strength and
integrity of a cracked section; due
care is to be given to make an
analysis check to ensure that this
will perform well under applied
load.
D. Drilling and plugging; this
consists of drilling down the length
of the crack and grouting it to form
a key.
E. Dry Packing: Relatively narrow
cracks and deep holes may be
rectified by dry packing; the crack
is slightly undercut, the surface
prepared, and mortar with just
enough water for sticking is
applied.
4.2.4 Restoration using Guniting
Gunite is a mechanically applied
material consisting of cement,
aggregate, and water. There are two
guniting processes in general use; the
wet mix and the dry mix process.
The cement and sand are batched
and mixed in the usual way and
conveyed through a hosepipe with the
help of compressed air. A separate
pipeline brings water under pressure
and the water and cement-aggregate
mix is passed through and intimately
mixed in a special manifold and then
projected at high velocity to the
surface being repaired. The force of
impact compacts the materials. In
good quality work a density of around
2100 Kg./m3 is achieved.
Before gunite is applied, the old
concrete surface is prepared properly,
all the cracks treated and the new
reinforcement fixed in position.
Cracks wider than about 0.5mm
should be cut out and filled with hand
applied mortar or with gunite. A wide
variety of gradings for aggregates
used in guniting process is
recommended by various authorities
and equipment suppliers. For general
guidance, requirements of IS: 383
would prove adequate.
A nominal mix of one part of cement
to 3.5 parts natural sand gauged by
loose dry volume is suitable for
general purpose guniting work. Due
to the rebound of sand particles
caused by the high velocity of the
mortar at the time of impact, the
deposited concrete will be slightly
richer than the above mix. The sand
should not be absolutely dry, but
preferably have a moisture content of
4% to 8%. The water-cement ratio
may be between 0.35 and 0.50
For effective guniting, the nozzle
should be kept 60 to 150 cm from the
work, preferably, normal to the
surface. When enclosing
reinforcement bars during repairs, the
nozzle should be held closer, at a
slight angle and the mix should be
slightly wetter than the normal. The
gunite is forced behind the bar while
build up of gunite on the front surface
of the bar is prevented, as otherwise,
the sandy materials may collect
behind the bar weakening the section
and developing shrinkage crack.
Rebound materials should not be
worked back into the construction; nor
the rebound materials should be
salvaged and included in the later
batches due to the danger of
contamination.
Apart from guniting, the following
methods are also available for
 rectification of concrete based on the
degree of deterioration:
a) Epoxy grouts
b) Epoxy coatings
c) Epoxy mortar coatings
d) Polymer grouting
e) Polymer concrete
f) Cement grouting
g) Cement concrete jacketing
5.0 REPAIR/REHABILITATION OF FIRE-
DAMAGED CONCRETE
STRUCTURES
5.1 Effects of excessive heat on
concrete
Concrete, which has reached
temperatures greater than about 600
Deg. C, is unlikely to have any useful
compressive strength. The
temperature of the concrete in
structural members subjected to
typical fires frequently does not
exceed 300 Deg. C at a depth of
about 40 mm below the exposed
surface and even in the most severe
fires, 300 Deg. C is seldom exceeded
at depths greater than 100 mm.
Other effects of high temperature on
concrete include a reduction in the
elastic modulus, and the spalling of
exposed surfaces. Surface crazing
and cracks, similar to those generally
associated with drying shrinkage may
also occur.
Generally concrete that has been
subject to a temperature sufficiently
high to impair its structural strength,
undergoes a series of colour changes.
The most important of these occurs at
about 300 Deg. C when a red or pink
colouration becomes evident. The
demarcation between affected and
unaffected concrete is usually sharp
and the depth that has been heated
above 300 Deg. C, therefore, be
judged to within 3 mm if a good
section is available.
Further information on the reduction in
strength of concrete can be obtained
by making strength tests on cores
taken from the affected members and
comparing the results with those
obtained on cores taken from
equivalent unaffected parts of the
structure.
5.2 REPAIR TECHNIQUES
Repairs are likely to involve the
removal of all concrete that has
suffered an appreciable loss in
strength, and its replacement by an
equivalent or greater amount of
material having a strength at least
equivalent to that of the original
concrete. In some cases it may also
be necessary to provide additional
reinforcement.
In many cases damage is likely to be
superficial, confined to the loss of
concrete cover to the reinforcement.
In such case, the appraisal may show
that all that is required is the
restoration of the cover concrete to
provide adequate future fire
resistance.
Structural cracks due to fire damage
may be treated by epoxy injection.
Surface repairs to columns and
beams may include addition of
reinforcing steel and guniting. To get
optimum adhesion between the gunite
and the old concrete, an epoxy with a
very long pot life may be brushed on
the concrete surface before gunitting.
Columns
Additional vertical steel and binders
may be required to be provided. After
the concrete has been suitably
prepared, the new reinforcement is
fixed and the column is then built out
to the required profile with gunite.
5.2.2 Beams
Additional reinforcement may be
provided in the bottom of the beams
together with new stirrups. The
stirrups can be anchored by
expanding bolts set in the side of the
beam below the slab soffit or may be
taken right round the beam through
holes drilled in the slab. The irregular
surface of the prepared concrete
usually ensures that a very good key
is obtained with the gunite but sheat
connectors can be provided by
expanding bolts or other means, if
required.
5.2.3 Slabs
 New reinforcements can conveniently
be provided usually by using an
appropriate steel fabric and the work
shall be designed to ensure continuity
with repairs of the adjoining beams.

5.2.4 Floors
Floors are strengthened by a 50 mm
topping with fresh concrete over new
reinforcing steel. Bonding is ensured
by drilling a number of holes - 50 mm
deep - in the old concrete and placing
dowels bonded by epoxy.
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