Today’s Lecture:

Introduction to Light.
You must develop a general understanding of what light is and how it behaves.

Reflection and Refraction (Snell’s Law).

You must be able to determine the path of light rays using the laws of reflection and
refraction.

Total Internal Reflection and Fiber Optics.

You must be able to determine the conditions under which total internal reflection occurs,
and apply total internal reflection to fiber optic and similar materials.

Dispersion.
You must understand that the index of refraction of a material is wavelength-dependent.
 Light
Normally, “light” refers to the type of electromagnetic wave
that stimulates the retina of our eyes.

Light acts like a wave except when it acts like particles.

The Speed of Light
Light is a type of electromagnetic wave and travels with the
speed c = 2.9979x108 m/s in a vacuum. (Just use 3x108!)
Visible light is a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Geometric Optics
Although light is actually an electromagnetic wave, it generally
travels in straight lines (like particles do!).
We can describe many properties of light by assuming that it
travels in straight-line paths in the form of rays.
A ray is a straight line along which light is propagated. In
other contexts, the definition of ray might be extended to
include bent or curved lines.
Light rays from some
external source strike an
object and reflect off it in all
directions.
We only see those light rays
that reflect in the direction
of our eyes.

If you can see something, it

must be a source of light!

Zillions* of rays are simultaneously reflected in all directions

from any point of an object. Later, when we study mirrors and
lenses, we won’t try to draw them all! Just enough
representative ones to understand what the light is doing.

*one zillion = 10a big number

Reflection

Light striking a surface may be reflected, transmitted, or

absorbed. Reflected light leaves the surface at the same angle
it was incident on the surface:

i = r

i r

Real Important Note: the angles are measured relative to the surface normal.
Reflection from a
smooth surface is
specular (mirror-
like). Reflection
from a rough
surface is diffuse
(not mirror-like).
Refraction

Light travels in a straight line

except when it is reflected or
when it moves from one
medium to another.

Refraction—the “bending” of light rays when light moves from

one medium to a different one—takes place because light
travels with different speeds in different media.
The speed of light in a vacuum is c = 3x108 m/s. The index of
refraction of a material is defined by
c
n = ,
v
where c is the speed of light in a vacuum and v is the speed of
light in the material.

The speed and wavelength of light change when it passes

from one medium to another, but not the frequency, so
c 
v= and n = .
n n
Because light never travels faster than c, n  1.* For water, n
= 1.33 and for glass, n 1.5. Indices of refraction for several
materials are listed in your text.

Example: calculate the speed of light in diamond (n = 2.42).

c
v =
n

3×10 8 m/s
v =
2.42

v = 1.24×10 8 m/s

*Actually, not true but don’t worry about it unless you take advanced courses in optics.
Because n  1, we
see this:
 Snell’s Law
When light moves from one medium into another, some is
reflected at the boundary, and some is transmitted.
The transmitted light is refracted (“bent”).
a is the angle of incidence, and b is the angle of refraction.

in re
cid f ra
en ct
t ed
ra
y a ra b
air (na) y air (nb)
water (nb) water (na)
b a

inci
refr

den
acte

t
ray
d ra

nb>na na>nb
y

na sin  θa  = nb sin  θb 
Light passing from air (n  1) into water (n  1.33).

Light “bends” towards the normal to the surface as it slows

down in water.

in
cid

(1)  sin  θa   = (1.33)  sin  θb  

en
t ra
y a
air (na)
water (nb)
θ a > θb
b
refr
acte
d ra

nb>na
y

na sin  θa  = nb sin  θb 
Light passing from water (n  1.33) into air (n  1).

Light “bends” away from the normal to the surface as it

speeds up in air.

re
f ra

(1.33)  sin  θa   = (1)  sin  θb  

ct
ed
ra b
y air (nb)
water (na)
θ a < θb
a

inci
den
t
ray
na>nb

na sin  θa  = nb sin  θb 
Snell’s law, also called the law of refraction, gives the
relationship between angles and indices of refraction:
na sin  θa  = nb sin  θb  .

air (na) air (na)

a a

b b
water (nb) water (nb)

You are free to choose which is “a” and which is “b.”

 is the angle the ray makes with the normal!

Total Internal Reflection; Fiber Optics

n1 sin  θ1  = n2 sin  θ2 

n2
sin  θ1  = sin  θ2 
n1

Suppose n2<n1. The largest possible value of sin(2) is 1

(when 2 = 90). The largest possible value of sin(1) is
n2
sin  θ1,max  = . For  larger than this, Snell’s
1

n1 Law cannot be satisfied!

This value of  is called the critical angle, C. For any angle of
incidence larger than C, all of the light incident at an interface
is reflected, and none is transmitted.
 1 < C 1 close to C

1 1

1 > C

1
 n2

 n1>n2

Ray incident normal to surface is not “bent.” Some is reflected,

some is transmitted.
 n2

 n1>n2

Increasing angle of incidence…

 n2

 n1>n2

Increasing angle of incidence…more…

 n2

 n1>n2

Increasing angle of incidence…more…critical angle reached…

some of incident energy is reflected, some is “transmitted
along the boundary layer.
 n2

 n1>n2

Light incident at any angle beyond C is totally internally

reflected.
application: fiber optics
Example: determine the incident angle i for which light strikes
the inner surface of a fiber optic cable at the critical angle.

Light is incident at f
an angle i on a i
transparent fiber. nf>1
ni=1 (air)

The light refracts at an angle f.

ni sin  θi  = nf sin  θf 

sin  θi  = nf sin  θ f 
 90
Light strikes the fiber
wall an an angle of 90-f
f
90-f normal to the i
nf>1
surface.
ni=1 (air)

At the critical angle, instead of exiting the fiber, the refracted

light travels along the fiber-air boundary. In this case, 90-f is
the critical angle.
nf sin  90 - θf  = nf sin  θc  = na sin  90   1
1
sin  90 - θ f  =
nf

Solve the above for f and use sin  θi  = nf sin  θ f  to solve for
i .
 90
Numerical example:
what is critical angle if 90-f
f
nf=1.4? i
nf>1
ni=1 (air)

1
sin  90 - θ f  = 90 - θ f = 45.58 θ f = 44.41
1.4

 1 sin  θi  =  1.4  sin  θf  =  1.4  sin  44.41 = 0.980

θi = 78.5
This is a very large angle of incidence! If you want the incident light to be
nearly parallel to the fiber axis, you must surround the fiber with a coating
with noutside<ncoating<nfiber.
application: swimming underwater

If you are looking up from underwater, if your angle of sight

(relative to the normal to the surface) is too large, you see an
underwater reflection instead of what’s above the water.
application: perfect mirrors

(used in binoculars)

application: diamonds
Dispersion

We’ve treated the index of refraction of a material as if it had a

single value for all wavelengths of light.

In fact, the index of refraction is generally wavelength- (or

color-) dependent.
Picture from the Exploratorium (http://www.exploratorium.edu/).